Ilk ---------Vol. 31, No. 3

311

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Fail 1984

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of Agricultural Research

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ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION GALE A, BUCHANAN, DIRECTOR

AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS

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ON THE COVER. Quality of small streams in Alabama is improving, as reported in story on page 16.

try is lacking in both number of LABAMA'Scapacity of operation. As plants and meat processing indusa result, the State is deficit in red meat production and relies heavily on imports of processed beef and pork. A survey done by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in 1980 indicated that the Alabama slaughter industry was primarily made up of small dual-purpose plants that kill and process both cattle and hogs. Excess capacity in the nation's meat packing industry has resulted in the closing of existing Alabama plants, and this has retarded expansion of other phases of the livestock industry. The State primarily exports lightweight calves to other regions of the country for fattening, slaughter, and processing for shipment back to Alabama for consumption. Developments in other regions are having a profound impact on the State's industry. Increased market concentration by a few large meat packing firms is reducing the competitive environment of this industry in the United States. Carcasses are cut into primal cuts to fit into boxes, allowing greater marketing efficiencies in transportation and storage. This technology permits large plants to effectively compete for markets in the meat deficit regions, particularly in Alabama. For Alabama's meat processing industry to develop to appropriate size, it needs to have either a comparative advantage or offer substitutes for imported red meat. An important strategy is to develop a market niche for the red meat industry where firms can survive even when a neighboring region has a cost advantage. A slaughter plant as large as those that box beef or pork is not currently feasible for Alabama because of the lack of year-round supplies of slaughter animals. The majority of plants in the Southeast are
medium-sized market hog slaughter and

H.M. COX and G.M. SULLIVAN Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
The two plants produce an array of processed products in forms and sizes to meet as many requirements as possible for a customer's store. Analysis of each plant using a linear programming model to maximize net returns found that the product mix should be reduced from 15 to 8 products in the smaller plant that kills both cattle and hogs. This would result in an estimated increase of 56% in net returns to the firm. The product mix of the larger plant, which kills only hogs, did not change significantly with the elimination of only one product, smoked sausage. The cost of manufacturing the company's full product line is less than for the smaller plant. The results indicate that each plant needs to focus on marketing its high priced items, with reduced emphasis on its lower priced items. Each plant markets an array of meat products for both the fresh and processed markets. Marketing a full product line causes a reduction in net return for both plants. In order to maintain a market share, however, a packing plant might need to produce a full product line to provide complete service to customers. The impact of the optimal operation on each firm's revenues is illustrated in the table. The optimal model for the market hog slaughter and processing plant had a net return of $7,881 per day, while the model which represented the current situation had a net return of $7,381 per day-a difference of $500. The change in net revenue for the sausage processing plant showed a relatively large increase for the optimal model compared to the current situation model. Net returns were $5,595 per day for the optimal model and $3,573 per day for the current situation model, a 56% advantage ($2,022) for the optimal model. In addition to producing products from slaughter animals, products such as pork bellies or hams are purchased. Both plants surveyed indicated that they market boxed beef shipped in from outside the State. Processing plants do this mainly to service their retail customers whom they are supplying with their branded products. Boxed beef can be stored at a reasonable cost with only slight additional costs incurred in handling. Both plants also market other food products, such as eggs and butter, which can be delivered to retail stores along with their own products. This arrangement allows cost efficiencies for the store. Rejuvenation of the meat processing industry will require companies to be more market oriented and selective in their product lines. A firm that can provide many different meat products-fresh, smoked, or processed-can gain a competitive edge in a narrow market area over a large meat packer outside the region who may not desire to export a large variety of products. Recent population shifts to the Southeast mean that effective demand will increase for processed meat products. Both effects will have a positive impact on local meat processors who can remain competitive in costs, develop a market niche for their products, and remain innovative in product forms and sizes to meet changing consumer demand.

processing plants (slaughtering approximately 450 head per day) and small sausage plants which slaughter cull sows, cows, and bulls (about 20 sows and 35 cattle per day). The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station is currently studying two plants that have a long history of operation, suggesting their ability to survive in a depressed industry. These plants were visited and interviews were conducted to gather detailed information on purchasing, slaughtering, processing, and marketing activities being performed. Both plants are integrated operations that market meat products under their own private brands. One plant kills and processes only hogs and the other both cattle and hogs. Each plant relies on supplies of live animals from a production area within a 200-mile radius. Plants either contract directly with producers or purchase animals through auction markets.

EFFECT OF USING OPTIMAL MODEL

ON NET RETURNS Plant I Model return day Current..... Plant II return

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$7,881

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$5,595

56

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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I. files( dicta shots that shoot pruning does increase shoot nunlhers and results in slipprrssed cunuilatkc shoot length, producing lhr desired (.11Cct of it compact plant. I Irnt('tcr. \\ Iwo pkutls au(' pruned at pottintl during the mosaic- months, rout ",-oath is suppressed during the first 2 ntunths. Furthcl moo" s('t('relt pruned plants tend to hate it grottth flash doting vthICll nett shoots t. ctidrnccd ht II.? rnielgc .silntlltanlcolls net( shoots I immth after pronto", and tlo additional nett shoots 2 months after prunin tall( I. (:onsccpurntlt. suppress"d root ",-oathcoupled with a rigorous growth slush during it bate of the tear when cntironntcntatl conditions are conducts r to stater

C H. ILLIAM, Department of Horticulture
G S COBB, Ornamental Horticulture Substatton
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stress nrtv udvrrsck aflic"t plant d('tclopnlent. \ practical application for honucottncrs occurs tv hen container-grotto plants are tr:nlsplanh'd into lhr landscape dieing lit(' suntuncr stud fall ntunths. Often, hnlilcottn(,rs trill seterrh prune these pktrnls al planting to produce the desired conl-

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R.R. HITCHCOCK and RE, MIRARCHI, Department of Zoology-Entomology
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doxe lald\(x I eggsx pecilutch,1 incubatIde tlie eggs4 for 14 (lxxs a1(1 broo th1 le 15 (dxc xbiefor e fledgxo ( 0 ipfproximaltci liniigs cdx t tic nit. The nestiiigs nid fledgb\ iig gitation. Fledlglings~ aire lings4 ,oi-e fedlx capale of xliin 1(4(olcpconlcit (if part l cdie at dalflo\iodtclx 21 (d\ xo(f .i(c (x\,o though thex aie feCd xxith xoimc rcigoldih it\ oifldlingdsfltslmbledxthe oldtrlfi(dtxxngs thcx die 21 clixs xold. the latdi paircot iiitil (in ain LFspci ilicit Stati(on xtl mlolurnat xh xxl iis c withisto nti thilil t 11.11lntiit ing (lox est cxxrcc located in cast-ceiitradl Alabaiii firo Mlarch thiiough 0 Occ 1938-1) Th1 - xfixc -1 niexting(4 xxcirc l~ llitcii xxadb11n thatt ag1(foioatr d equ(ipped~ xkith radlio trdilsmiittcrx. alit :31 coprleiiitlx. 18 (sl (Ifnttig.ioxttl(iil nd iiextiiudtx xxcic imarkedi xwithi coloredl kxing4 to oild n4si sxixeixproal cldll~ xxoi oldnIe tagx. ncxlii(4xflein~4igx xxeie lcatdl aiod obsxcrxed (I fur l apoziimatec 2 hoursi xthlre timsicidlex it 12, 1.5-21 21, 27, adi :3(0 (lixs of age. The nut i e anidl( ura(tioi n oli(f d fCcdiiig intction li hcx a nciestiling-fledgiog (loxe axdl pill iitx (If' both1 sxes~ xx re
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Total ................

117

Aliubamua A-)iciulti ul ExVperienict Stationu

Energy Management System
Makes Efficient

Use of

hours of sunshine furnished by the National Weather Service. The difference between the expected heat loss and heat gain must be supplied from the storage system. If the available energy in storage at the time the heat balance calculations are made is adequate to heat the house over the forecast period, no additional heat would be required. If, however, the storage energy is below the amount required, then the biomass system would be used to provide the additional amount in advance of the time it was needed. Results of preliminary work indicate that the mathematical model being developed at Auburn can predict the expected heat loss and heat requirements with reasonable accuracy from 1- to 3-day weather forecasts. Figure 2 shows an example of actual energy usage and that calculated using the model for one trial. Work is continuing to improve the accuracy of calculations. Some problems in predicting hourly temperatures, and thus expected heat loss, occurred with rapidly moving cold fronts. However, the results were satisfactory for most applications. A microprocessor system such as would be required for this system can be installed for under $200 with a video readout and tape input. The microprocessor can be utilized for many more functions other than simply predicting energy requirements. Small microprocessor units are now being field tested as temperature controllers and as "intelligent" fan control systems. The decreasing cost of microprocessors has opened many areas for their applications. By improving the heating system efficiency, the efficiency of the entire poultry producing operation can be increased, thereby reducing operating costs. Also, efficient utilization of farm labor means that time management must be continually improved. Hopefully, the system described here will aid in these areas.

Combination Solar-Biomass Poultry Brooding System
CA FLOOD, JR,, and J.L, KOON, Department of Agricultural Engineering R.N. BREWER, Department of Poultry Science

ing system, some form of backup DESIGNING a utilized to energy source must be solar heathandle heating loads during periods of severe cold and extended cloudiness. It is possible to design a solar system large enough to take care of these two cases, but the cost would be prohibitive. A scaled down system could still supply all of the needed heat for a major portion of the year with a backup heater furnishing the remainder during higher demand periods. Auxiliary heat is normally supplied by electricity, oil, or gas. The collected solar energy fulfills the heating requirements until the stored energy is exhausted, at which time the auxiliary heater turns on automatically. A lower cost alternative to electricity, oil, or gas is a wood burning boiler to satisfy the supplemental heating load. Wood as fuel is less expensive, but requires more management since the boiler must be manually refueled on a 24-hour basis. This management time can be reduced if sufficient energy is generated by burning excess wood during the day to last through the night. Research on ways to efficiently manage

WHEN

energy utilization by a combination solarbiomass brooding system for broiler chickens is being conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. A mathematical model is being developed to assist the grower in deciding when the biomass burner must be operated and when adequate solar energy will be available. To carry out needed calculations, a small microprocessor system will be required. Calculation of the expected heating load can be accomplished with a microcomputer furnished with the appropriate inputs. These inputs consist of the expected temperature differences between inside and outside air, building thermal characteristics, ventilation rate, and age of birds. The hourly outdoor air temperature can be accurately predicted from the forecasted high and low temperatures furnished by the National Weather Service, figure 1. Using these hourly temperatures, the total heat loss by conduction through the building shell and heat loss in the ventilation air can be predicted. The expected solar energy gain can be predicted for a given system using the out-

FIG. 1. Actual and calculated hourly temperatures.

FIG. 2. Actual and calculated energy usage. Heat flow, kwh

Degrees F 76

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Actual
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60

50 40 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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50 40 Calculated

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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Day of trial 18 20 22 24

6

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

4 A

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Nematode Resistant Soybean Varieties Sought for Infested Alabama Fields
D.B. WEAVER, Department of Agronomy ana Soils R RODRIGUEZ-KABANA and D.G. ROBERTSON, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology
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Promising C.utf 9 for the Southeast Identified in Piedmont Substation Comparison
D.C. FARE, C.H. GILLIAM, and H.G. PONDER, Department of Horticulture W.A GRIFFEY and H.E. BURGESS, Piedmont Substation HEi N Ittlntni tfoauluttioa r at entupt eltitxix xii FE iat
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plywood in the United States was N 1983, more from 50% of softwood manufactured than southern yellow pine. Although growth yield of southern yellow pines is able to satisfy present demands for pulp and paper, lumber, and plywood, the average diameter of harvested southern pine trees is decreasing while demands for lumber and plywood in housing are increasing. Part of the additional plywood needed for

sheathing may be manufactured either entirely from sweetgum or a combination of

southern pine and sweetgum. Sweetgum
represents 12% of all growing hardwood stock in the South. Density, gluability,

strength, and physical properties of sweetgum are comparable to loblolly pine, according to research at the Alabama Agricultural

Sheathing-Grade Plywood from Sweetgum Suitable for Structural Purposes
E.J. BIBLIS Department of Forestry and center. All veneers were rotary cut and 1/8-in. thick. All CDX southern pine and sweetgum plywood panels were fabricated with a commercial extended phenolic resin. All panels were pre-pressed at room temperature with 160 p.s.i. for approximately 3 minutes, then hot-pressed with 200 p.s.i. at 305°F for 3.5 minutes for 3-ply, 1/2 in.; 4 minutes for 4-ply, 1/2 in.; and 5 minutes for 5-ply, 5/8 in. Three of the five panels of each of the six plywood groups were randomly selected to obtain specimens for evaluating the following properties: bending in the orientation of the grain of face veneer, shear stiffness, shear strength, and glue line shear strength. All testing was performed according to applicable ASTM standards for testing ties of plywood with southern pine veneer faces and sweetgum cores were higher than those of all 5/8-in. pine plywood and lower in

Experiment Station. Sweetgum peels easily into veneer and produces relatively smooth veneer surfaces. Mechanical properties of commercially
produced CDX' southern pine plywood were compared to those of sweetgum plywood and plywood made from southern pine

veneer faces and sweetgum core in the Auburn tests. Five commercial CDX southern yellow pine plywood panels (4 ft. by 8 ft.) were randomly selected in a plywood mill from each of the following three constructions: 3-ply, 1/2-in.; 4-ply, 1/2-in.; and 5-ply, 5/8-in. All veneers of 4-ply and 5-ply were 1/8-in, thick, while all veneers of the 3-ply were 1/6-in, thick. For comparison, five each of the following experimental plywood panels were constructed in the same mill: 4 -ply, 1/2-in, with all-sweetgum C grade faces, D grade backs, and C-D grade cores; 4-ply, 1/2-in. with southern pine C grade faces and D grade backs, and sweetgum C-D cores; 5-ply, 5/8-in. with southern

pine C grade faces and D grade backs, and sweetgum C-D cores; 5-ply, 5/8-in. with southern pine C grade faces and D grade backs, and sweetgum C-D grade crossbands 'CDX designates plywood constructed with C grade veneer face, D grade veneer back, bonded with an exterior type X glue.

plywood. The experimental test results of certain important mechanical properties of commercial CDX southern pine plywood, of allsweetgum plywood, and of plywood with

southern pine faces and sweetgum cores are presented in the table. The experimental results indicate that the mechanical properties of all-sweetgum CDX plywood are better than properties of all-southern pine CDX plywood. Results also indicate that proper-

1/2-in. pine plywood. In general, the results suggest that allsweetgum plywood, bonded with phenolic resin, can perform structurally as well as CDX all-southern pine plywood sheathing in house construction. As expected, the 3-ply all-pine 1/2-in. plywood was approximately 16% stiffer and stronger in bending (oriented to face grain) than 4-ply all-pine 1/2-in. plywood of equal veneer quality. Wet-dry cycled specimens retained at least 86% of the original binding values. Bending specimens tested after 48-hour soak retained 63% to 70% of their original stiffness and between 48% and 76% of their original strength. It is strongly recommended that the American Plywood Association perform tests according to its performance based standards on all-sweetgum plywood panels to verify and certify that such panels meet APA criteria for sheathing and flooring. The significance of this study is that existing forest resources of sweetgum can be used for manufacturing structural plywood for housing.

BENDING AND SHEAR PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL CDX PLYWOOD WITH ALL-VENEER PLIES, SOUTHERN PINE, SWEETGUM, AND WITH SOUTHERN PINE FACES AND SWEETGUM CROSSBANDS'
2

Face and core species

No. of plies

Moisture content Pct.

Density3

Bending properties Stiffness 1,000 p.s.i.

Strength p.s.i. 1,000 p.s.i.

Shear stiffness

Shear strength p.s.i.

Glue line Shear Wood strength failure p.s.i. Pct.

All veneers southern pine ....... All veneers southern pine ....... Faces southern pine; core sweetgum ...................
All veneers sweetgum ..........

3 4 4
4

10.1 9.8 10.1
10.0

0.53 .61 .55
.59

1,450 1,295 1,035
1,554

7,170 6,550 5,170
10,030

61.7 81.6 73.8
87.0

660 970 820
1,000

190 240 240
220

70 85 95
90

All veneers southern pine ....... Faces southern pine; core and crossbands sweetgum .....
2

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1,059 1,373

5,200 8,390

76.1 82.0

900 950

255 225

85 95

3

'Each value represents the mean of 12 specimens. Specimens were 6 in.wide; 1/2-in, thick specimens were tested over 24-in. span and 5/8-in, thick over 30-in. span, with veneer grain orientation.

Weight divided by volume (oven-dry basis).

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

9

January 1984 to contract with USDA for

Noiik
Diversion
Program

May Lead to Higher Milk Prices
L.E. WILSON

reduced milk marketings from 5% to 30% below their base level (1982 marketings or 1981-82 average marketings). The contract was set for 15 months, from January 1984 through March 1985. In an Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study of effects of the program, it was found that about 38,000 dairy farmers (20% of all U.S. commercial dairymen) signed contracts to reduce milk marketings. They contracted to divert 7.5 billion lb. in 1984, which was 22.9% of the participants' bases. Production cutbacks were to be made mainly through heavier culling and adjustments in feeding programs. However, many producers were eligible for program payments because of reductions they had made in 1983 before the act was passed. This probably accounted for about one-third of the contract diversions. Thus, actual diversions
in 1984 as a result of the program amount to

AFTER

Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
MONTHS OF DEBATE,

Congress enacted the Dairy and Tobacco Adjustment Act in late 1983. Dairy provisions were designed to encourage the adjustment of milk production to meet the national demand for milk products. The Act was passed following 13 years of production increases that had brought record surplus build-up and growing public concern about excessive program costs. The 1983 dairy legislation provides for reductions in the support price, an assessment paid by dairy farmers of 50¢ per 100 lb. of milk marketed, and a 15¢ dairy promotion allowance, plus the program's centerpiece-a $10 per hundredweight optional payment to dairy farmers not to produce milk. This provision, referred to as the Milk Diversion Program, allowed farmers in

only about 5 billion lb. Impact of the diversion program was found to vary among regions. In the major milk production states, where the surplus problem originated, dairymen did not participate at the expected levels. The greatest signup occurred in the Southeast where milk supplies were already short. In Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina, 1,466 dairy farmers signed contracts to divert 737 million lb. in 1984, 11.4% of 1983 production. Diversion was only 2.0% of 1983 production in the Northeast, 3.2% in the Lake States, and 3.5% in the Pacific West. Wisconsin dairy farmers, who produce 17% of U.S. output, diverted only 3.5% of their 1983 production. Through June 1984, total milk production in the five leading dairy states (California, Minnesota, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin) was essentially unchanged from 1983. Production in the Southeast was down about 6%. Participation in Alabama was among the highest in the nation, with 42% (172 producers) of commercial dairymen signing contracts for diversion. These farmers agreed to

MILK DIVERSION PROGRAM PARTICIPATION IN ALABAMA, JANUARY 1984-MARCH 1985

Diversion percentage
................... 10 ................... 15................... 17 ................... 20................... 21................... 22 ................... 23................... 25................... 27...................
30 ................... TOTAL .............

Producers participating
1 9 8 1 11 1 1 2 8 42
188 172

Amount for 15-month period Total Total Average Average base diversion base diversion
Thou. lb. Thou. lb. Thou. lb. Thou. lb. 1,748 140 1,748 140 15,399 1,540 1,711 171 14,742 2,211 1,843 276 1,259 214 1,259 214 16,881 3,376 1,535 307 2,762 580 2,762 580 1,180 260 1,180 260 2,347 540 1,174 270 22,753 5,689 2,844 711 83,138 22,477 1,979 535
143, 114 305,323 42,935 79,931 1,626 1,775 488 465

Cows milked 1st qtr. 4th qtr. 1983 1983
No. 115 90 106 84 88 158 70 71 160 112
95

. . . . . . .

No. 105 88 98 75 89 145 70 69 144 104
85

102

93

Source: USDA, ASCS.

divert 63.1 million lb. in 1984 (80 million lb. during the 15-month program). These diversions amount to 26.2% of the producers' bases and 11% of total Alabama production in 1983. Dairy farmers who had either reduced or maintained milk production since the base period found the diversion program to be financially attractive. The cost of complying by these farmers was less than the diversion payments. In contrast, producers who had increased marketings substantially since the base period likely could not justify the cost of participation. For farmers who had increased production, the reductions required to participate would include the elimination of their increased production plus the diversion level chosen. With these two potential situations, a high sign-up was predictable in Alabama where production had been declining before 1984. Alabama dairy farmers will be paid about $8 million for milk diversion over the 15-month period. Most participants diverted 27% or 30% of their bases. Those diverting less than 30% may overship their contracted volumes up to 3% and remain within the contract limits. The average participant had an annual base of about 1.4 million lb. and diverted 372,000 lb. Thus, average diversion payments will be approximately $46,500 for the 15-month program period. Farmers diverting a higher percentage of base (25-30%) tended to have the large bases, see table. Average number of cows milked by participants declined from 102 to 93 from the first to last quarter of 1983. This 9% decline accounted for some of the adjustments made by farmers prior to signing diversion contracts. With high diversion in the South, the spring milk flush did not create the normal seasonal surplus problems in 1984. In Florida, for example, the large cutback in production resulted in doubled importation of raw milk. In early summer, out-of-state milk needs for the Florida markets have exceeded total Alabama Grade A milk marketings. Greatest needs in the Southeast generally occur with the beginning of school in late August. With Southern dairymen cutting back on production as they comply with diversion contracts, cooperatives and milk processors will be forced to acquire a greater proportion of their raw milk supplies from more distant sources at higher costs. This extra supply cost will result in either (1) higher consumer prices for milk, or (2) cooperatives, who are usually the major suppliers, passing these costs on to producer members in the form of lower net prices for their production. Thus, great pressure will be on the Southern milk industry to seek higher fluid milk prices to increase returns to dairy farmers and avoid greater shortages in the region.

10

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

single-family, detached house is the CONVENTIONALLY predominant housing type BUILT, in the United States. However, there are many alternatives that may help to protect the nation's natural resources and offer an economic advantage to the consumer. Housing that is factory built is usually less costly to construct and may use fewer materials. Multi-family housing, such as townhouses and apartments, uses less land and usually has lower land development costs. Recent developments in energy saving construction (passive, solar, active solar, earth sheltered, and retrofitted houses) promise to conserve fossil fuels and reduce heating and/ or cooling expenses. Although these alternatives offer certain advantages, they have not been readily accepted by housing consumers. A recent survey of Alabama households, conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station as part of a regional project, sought to identify consumers' awareness of these alternatives as well as their perceptions of these housing options. Households for this study were randomly selected from property tax listings in four Alabama counties. The counties were selected by a stratification process based on median household income and number of nonfarm households. A total of 216 households was personally interviewed in Crenshaw, Dallas, Clay, and Lee counties during 1981. The respondents were primarily white females between the ages of 25 and 64; most were employed either full- or part-time. Over 70% of the households had two to four members and over 50% had incomes of $15,000 or more. Ninety-four percent of the households lived in conventional houses and 87% of the houses were owned. Over 65% of the housing units in the sample had 1,401 or more sq. ft. of floor space. The level of consumers' awareness of housing alternatives is reported in the accompanying table. Respondents were asked if they had heard about, read about, seen, or lived in the following: manufactured housing (mobile homes), multi-family housing (apartments), passive solar housing (using design, construction, and natural convection to collect and transfer solar energy), active solar housing (using mechanical devices to collect and transfer solar energy), retrofitted

THE

PERCEPTIONS OF ALTERNATIVE HOUSING AMONG ALABAMA CONSUMERS

JO. BEAMISH, Department of Home Economics Research
housing (energy efficient additions made), and earth sheltered housing (partially or completely covered by earth). Over 90% of the respondents had heard about manufactured and multi-family housing. The respondents were not as familiar with the energy saving alternatives, with only 49% having heard about retrofitted housing. While one-third of the respondents had lived in multi-family housing and onefourth had lived in manufactured housing, none of the respondents had lived in active solar or earth sheltered houses and only a few had lived in passive solar or retrofitted houses. Once the respondents' level of awareness was determined, the various alternatives were defined and respondents were asked if they would consider living in these alternatives if they were to move or change residences. Over 50% of the respondents indicated they would definitely or probably consider living in the passive solar, active solar, and retrofitted housing types. Most of the respondents would definitely not or probably not consider living in manufactured housing, multi-family housing, or earth sheltered houses. There was, however, a substantial proportion ofrespondents (36%) who stated they would consider living in an earth sheltered house. Respondents' perceptions of these housing options provide some insight into their willingness to live in alternative housing. Energy efficiency was the most frequently reported reason why respondents would like living in passive solar, active solar, and retrofitted houses. The safety of manufactured housing, the privacy and location of multifamily housing, and the confinement of the earth sheltered house were frequently cited as undesirable features. On the other hand, the cost of manufactured housing, the limited amount of maintenance associated with multi-family housing, and the energy efficiency and safety of the earth sheltered house were seen as being advantages of these house types. Finally, the respondents were asked to rank the housing alternatives from best liked to least liked. The conventionally built house was included in this list and was the first choice of 67% of the sample. The earth sheltered house was both the most frequently cited second choice and the last choice, indicating that the respondents were divided in their positive and negative perceptions of this housing type. The passive solar and active solar house types were most frequently ranked in the middle; and manufactured housing, multi-family housing, and retrofitted houses were most frequently ranked close to the bottom. Preliminary findings indicate that Alabama consumers may have fairly positive perceptions about housing alternatives offering energy efficiency, although earth sheltered housing evoked both positive and negative reponses. Consumers were not positive about manufactured and multifamily housing. Further analysis of the relationship between household characteristics (income, age, education, etc.) and these perceptions may offer a better understanding of the choices that different types of consumers might consider as well as provide insight into the housing types that should be offered by the housing industry.

ALABAMA RESPONDENTS WHO HAD HEARD ABOUT, READ ABOUT, SEEN, OR LIVED IN HOUSING ALTERNATIVES

Heard about....... Read about ........
Seen .............

Lived in.........

Manufactured housing Pct. 95.4 27.0 84.7 26.5

Multi-family housing Pct. 92.1 25.1 81.4 34.9

Passive solar Pct. 67.1 27.8 14.8 1.6

Active Retrofitted solar II Pct. Pct. 63.4 48.8 31.9 21.4 9.3 11.6 .0 .5

Earth

-- sheltered
Pct. 88.0 34.3 16.2 .0

Note: Multiple responses do not add to 100.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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A.J. LATHAM 15: Xsi: UV" 1( 11,
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Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, ana Microbiology
M H HOLLINGSWORTH North Alabama Horticulture Su~bstation

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FIG. 1 (left). Russet due to fungicide toxicity to skin of apple. FIG. 2 (right). Russet due to low temperature. Russet band may occur anywhere on fruit.
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D.L. KUHLERS, S.B. JLNGST, DUN. MARPLE,

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F THE FOUR major animal waste types-swine, beef, dairy, and poultry-swine waste has demonstrated superior methane production properties. The high concentrate ration fed swine production herds provides a waste that is approximately 30% more productive on a dry matter basis than any of the other waste types. The liquid flushing systems commonly found in Alabama's swine production facilities allow frequent waste removal, providing a fresh substrate for methane production. However, the addition of flushing liquid to the raw waste results in excessive dilution of the waste material, so some method of reconcentrating the flushed waste must be employed before use in an anaerobic digester for methane production. One of the simplest methods of reconcentrating the flushed waste is mechanical separation using either a stationary or vibrating screen. Studies conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station examining reconcentration with vibrating screens have shown that by using various screen mesh sizes and flow rates, a waste feedstock that is ideal for methane fermentation can be produced. The optimum solids level for anaerobic digestion is approximately 5% total solids, which can be produced using a 60-mesh screen (60 openings per in.) and a flow rate of 17 gal. per minute per sq. ft. Because most of the ammonia contained in the flushed swine waste is not captured in the reconcentrated solids fraction, the possibility of digester "upset" due to high ammonia levels is greatly reduced. Thus, both process stability and overall methane production are enhanced using reconcentrated waste as the methane substrate. During the screening process, all dissolved solids and a major portion of the fine particulate solids remain in the liquid fraction. Since the solids fraction is used as the digestion feedstock, all solids that remain in the liquid fraction are not available for methane production. The loss of these solids, should it be severe, can seriously reduce methane production when the screened waste is compared to the original flushed waste. To evaluate these losses, studies were conducted using a 2,000-gal. pilot-scale digester at the Experiment Station's Swine Research Unit in Auburn. Flushed swine waste was reconcentrated using an 18-in. vibrating screen separator with a mesh size of 60 and a 17-gal. per minute per sq. ft. flow rate. The potential methane loss in this system has been determined to be in the 35 to 40% range. This loss does not appear to be economically prohibitive for methane production, and using a liquid waste transport system employing a reconcentrating step

actually appears to enhance the total energy production of the system. Because a major portion (70%) of the ammonia (one of the most inhibitory constituents of the raw waste) has been removed from the feedstock, digester loading rates can be greatly increased when compared to whole waste. This reduces the size of the digester required to process equal amounts of waste, and therefore reduces capital costs, which are a major factor in determining economic feasibility of methane production systems. Data collected during the study relating to digester performance using the reconcentrated flushed waste follow. Except for the initial loss of material due to screening, the separated waste is an excellent methane feedstock. The characteristics of the screened waste showed a total solids fraction of 5%, made up of material that is 10% ash. The remainder of the solids fraction (90%) was organic material capable of being converted to methane. The ammonia level of the screened waste was 554 milligrams per liter, which is well below the level required to produce inhibition of methane fermentation. The screening process, in addition to reconcentrating the waste, actually increases the fraction of biodegradable material from about 80% in whole waste to 90% in the screened waste, while reducing the ash content from about 20% to 10%. The economics of on-farm methane production are directly determined by digester performance, which is measured in terms of methane production, biodegradable solids reduction, and the economic value of the produced methane. Performance characteristics using the reconcentrated flushed waste showed that approximately 4.75 cu. ft. of methane can be produced per pound of solid material loaded into the digester. This figure, when converted to a more useful basis, shows that approximately 13.2 cu. ft. of methane per day can be produced per 1,000 lb. of animal live weight-standing capacity. The solids content of the screened waste was reduced by approximately 54%, which reduces the ultimate disposal of solid material by approximately one-half. Because the energy production system studied here employs a solids concentrating step, it can be easily retrofitted to any swine production facility that uses a liquid transport system. More than 60% of Alabama's commercial swine production facilities already have flushing waste collection systems. The reconcentration process enhances the methane production characteristics of the flushed waste by increasing the total solids content, by increasing the fraction of the total solids that is biodegradable, and by removing a major portion (70%) of the ammonia in the flushed waste.

D.T. HILL and J.P, BOLTE Department of Agricultural Engineering

During the screening process, approximately 35 to 40% of the potential methane production in the flushed waste is lost. The economic value of the energy produced during the study was based on the replacement of LP gas at 90¢ per gal. From the 200-head finishing operation at the Swine Research Unit, which utilizes a standard slatted floorflushing system, the methane produced was valued at $3.13 per produced pig per year. Thus, in a typical operation where 600 head are finished per year, this represents a potential energy savings of approximately $1,900 annually. Based on the cost of the digestion system at Auburn, the pay-back period would be approximately 6 years, with an expected operating life of 20 years. The economics of this system become more attractive as production size increases because unit capital cost of digestion systems decreases as volume increases. Thus, for the total Alabama swine industry, significant production cost reduction can occur.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

15

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RR BAYNE, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures E"HILL, Mississippi Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Mississippi State University

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andt tiheir tapes.' T'ali fe'sc'ue is otine of thet motst xxititi grown 1 follage grass's ill thet Un iitedi States. It ihas ex'ell't' i a'ronomici' I 11)I'tharat'tet'i csl anti its nu~tien'it aili xisi goodl~. Howxex ri cattie gira/log tll ft's'ci'ue 'fei'ntx ihax e re'tuce'd
wxeight gains, Irapidi rtespiratiotn, t't''x1X t'

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S.P. SCHMIDT, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, C.C. KING, J.F. PEDERSEN, and C.S. HOVELAND, Department of Agronomy and Soils, and LA, SMITH, H.W. GRIMES, and J.A. HOLLIMAN, Black Belt Substation
anti brt't't (If t'aif andt pit til tite pturtes ait a sttckinIIg ratt' o f (lilt pair pert adc Tihe gr'aing st'asotn iitgani it mliid-Nox 'iei be. Duinig Jaituarx andt F'tbriuarl whxeitn stufficeneit foriagt' wax niot ax ailabile, tite tti'x ' 'iltlew nx t't fitiil titr paticltksx and feti t h lsllgi t axx hax wxitih i 20%' protetin xsupplt'metnt t'omposxtet of corn andt ct'tonsxee't iiitai. Te t'oxxs xxetrt' trhrted xhiilt' loff tiht ipaddocltks. Sping gr ant'ac eixtar. xxetre

o the 6c

ttr

tha

Sxtr'tion havshown tit txil

motrt' thianl 90' of' tht' fescut' wxas inifet'ttdt. Altiughi tiht toxico'sis is c'oitiionix i'tfetrrt'd tot as xtummner xxntrttmit bt'tatuse otf tilt ixsibit' x\ ilf)tiits ini grazuig ailsi titriitg hot wxeather, poorl xxetight gains 1o1 thet

Cailf daily gaiins wxetrt' neairx 50t% greater the nitnfi ecteti ft'st'ueit tahilt 1. r'estlitnig inlle thiat xwetrt' 91 iii ittaxit'r at tilt entd of tue ftescue grazinig, tabit' 2. Bodx ttemiperatturex wxere' t'it'vated in hoth tiht cosxx aiit h ifece t't estcxte.t t'aixst' iat giae flt'iuilguin Pirest'nt't of tite fungxix ret'x etrt iin a 5 decrease ill iik piodction'ill by tilt t'iwx . Wn~ thit t'attit' xxeri pit oni daiiisgrasstil

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tals of tattit' titrinlg cuold xxeather, ix rt'iatt't MIally of kial 1)01 nt'ar'ly 1 ilion bee'tf, cowxs grazc' tail ft'sce't. Tt' oicjtttive iti t' stutdx t'ontductt'd at tht' Blactk Bt'it Stilxtatio n, NMaio Junjtitcitin xxax tuo tcompart' thit perfotrimantce ofi be'tf c'ttx an cltitaixets gi'azin g fu111guis-inft'tctetd or reiatix 'e ll ill-

added tuo tite paitdocks andit

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calx r'x fromil

noniinfrectetd fest'ue, tabite 2. It

ttirr's xwetre' iit',xi

t'iturinig NMax °. At titt

Tiiest' re'sults sitoxx thtat presente iof tiht
Mosit ilf tilt tail fetscet in Alabamta aitt tihe Souitheastern Unilitedt States ix in~feted't. 'fTt' best xtoluttions att tiis timt' for iitfetedt f'etite paxtures apper'a to (ceitr' be tixeiniig tc'loxver it tiht fe'sce statndtis art' xsiimIe'xiat tiificiilt lto establiit aii m IIainiitaint or ret'staihinitg pastutres xxithi it nitn11fet'e t inetysuxcit ax AU t'oxxcaif performlance't. Tiump orlifi wixitit agtet steet iwithiliabotite friiguis ihts ratoirx growxxout ttests sitoxx

iiiltc'tt't Kentuckx :31 festot'. Existinlg tail ft'xtcit pasturt's that xwetrt'
eithetr greater than
9

0%~/infet'tttt

tor it'ss than

pastuire' util tiht August. wex e t'ittt ttarix xperr actre xxetr' (:oxx tcalf gra/inig lays gret'ttr for ther fun guin ifetedt piasturest' tabile 1. Caittit' gring iiif'tctted ft'xc'ue spt'itt mttire t iillnt ill tilt xihade, xxicht It' r'tucex forhigihtr xstointg age' t'tinstilmitioni so it tooik ait puct tit alisgrasxstclox tr talix t'wxetrt' ratt' Ito mailltainl folragte ax t aitiitx paxtturesx. galint't Cowxxs xsimilar to gra/zing ntonxxheretax iriductet

5% fnfet'tid (nninlifet't't't xetre uxs'd ill this 3-x tai stuitix. Grasx riue' wxas moiwxxed anti reimiox 't frotm tht' paddot'kx in iate Jtti' hr Auigust anti nitrogenl wxas apied't at 100~t lit. per aet in Septeimher anti agalin iii Ftbtasxitum, anti iiiit xxtrt' nmatde accortding to

itoitinf'ec'tr't
iitfettdt

ft'xt'nt

xx igiht,

iauil\. Tis stexvtre
itncptx r tite axtr tin

xxeight ilxss ctiiiit x t' rcoi.

In this ttdpa,

'PRsignedi. NoNX Proft'ssor of' Agrfoomt, v ersihx of Georgia.
TALE

Ui-.I

sil test ret'oitmetndtions. Crotshre't t'owcaif pairs xwxetrt' tiidteti accordiing to age, st'x,

to-

xxi whil re tceuxiing gooti xsiippi'iiteitai

tINt. Ft NtGt -INF FtIELI 2. LI( OF (;BIto F FL',E ON CALF WI AxNt WE 11,111

NI cdxii e Txixat: 1. C(lw-CALF PEttFOcHiASt ot\TAti. Fvsxi II Ix',t luIs As AFE ito iti Ft Ntrst x Hi sK Bui St ItsLAiitN 1951)-1983 Per acre
Pasttlre coX -calf grazlii g tiaix D~aiih gait ('ax cxw C'ows Ie Both temoperatur C'x tx111k axes

free tescue

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Economic Aspects of the U.S. Farm-Raised Catfish Industry
H.W. KINNUCAN, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology commercially processed catfish has CAPITA CONSUMPTION of increased tenfold since 1970. Since most of these fish are raised on farms in Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas, the tremendous growth in catfish consumption is a significant development for Southern agriculture. An obvious effect of this growth is a change in agricultural land use. Today, about 73,000 surface acres of land are devoted to commercial catfish production, compared to 2,400 acres in 1963. Establishment of processing plants in the region (currently 16 plants service the industry's 1,000 producers) and feed mills are other important aspects of this growth in consumer demand for catfish.
To gain some insight into the demand for

PER

catfish and to trace through implications for future industry growth, a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study estimated price and demand relationships for catfish at both the processor and farm levels. A major finding of the study is that the demand for catfish is price elastic, that is consumers appear to be quite sensitive to changes in the price of catfish. The implications of this finding, as well as other findings relating to seasonal price behavior,
the impact of imports on farm prices, and

demanded is greater than the percentage change in price when demand is elastic, an industry facing an elastic demand curve for its product finds its revenues varying inversely with price, i.e., when prices fall revenues increase and when prices rise revenues fall. A corollary to this statement is that an elastic demand implies a direct relationship between quantity marketed and price. Thus, if the finding of an elastic demand for catfish is correct, one should observe a positive relationship between industry revenues and harvests. Industry data confirm this relationship: between 1977 and 1983, harvests increased nearly sixfold while industry revenues increased 6.5 times, see table. Hence, an important implication of a price-elastic demand for catfish is that the market can absorb relatively large increases in supply without declines in producer
revenues.

industry growth potential were studied. A commodity with a price elastic demand has the property that small changes in price induce relatively large changes in the quantity demanded. Commodities having a relatively large number of substitutes, or at least one close substitute (e.g., margarine may be considered a close substitute for butter), usually have an elastic demand. Thus, because consumers can easily substitute other fish, or even poultry, beef, and pork for
catfish, it is not surprising that the demand

An elastic demand implies stable prices at the farm level. Actual data confirm this expectation: between 1970 and 1983, prices at the farm level typically varied by less than 4¢ per pound on a month-to-month basis. Changes in average annual prices also are modest, especially in light of the large increases in supply that have occurred in recent years, see table. Specific econometric estimates indicate a 100% change in harvests would change farm prices by only 21%, assuming no change in processors' inventories or imports of catfish. Thus, a catfish enter-

prise helps stabilize revenues in a diversified
farming operation. A further implication of an elastic demand for catfish is that conventional policies designed to assist farmers, i.e. price supports and/or supply control measures, will be

counterproductive for the industry. Thus, public or cooperative private measures to assist the industry, should they prove to be necessary, will need to differ fundamentally from past and many current agricultural subsidy programs. One policy option that might benefit the industry is a research and promotion program designed to expand markets for catfish, perhaps funded by a checkoff against processors. Other findings of the study relate to seasonal price behavior at the farm level and the impact of imports on farm prices. A common complaint of catfish processors is the sporadic supply of catfish supplies throughout the year. However, results show that seasonal price incentives have not been adequate to encourage catfish producers to alter the existing harvesting pattern. If processors wish to effectively address the problem of seasonal deficits in supply, they will need to consider changes in their pricing policy. In the early stages of the industry, imports of catfish constituted an important component of the U.S. supply of catfish. In recent years, however, imports of catfish have declined and today represent only about 3% of the domestic harvest, see table. Improvements in the quality of grain-fed fish raised in ponds in the United States, the more constant availability of supply, and an increasing price for "wild" imported fish (mainly from Brazil) have combined to make the domestic fish more attractive to consumers. In fact, the research results show catfish imports during the 1977-82 period having no significant impact on the price domestic producers receive for their catfish. The demand for catfish is projected to eventually represent 6% of all fish consumed by Americans. The present market share is 2.4%. Most of this growth will occur by the turn of the century, requiring a tripling in size of the industry over the next 16 years. However, because of the elastic nature of the demand for catfish, the achievement of this growth will require that the industry remain efficient and price competitive. This means aggressively adopting new technology and management practices so maximum possible efficiencies in the production, processing, and marketing of the fish are realized.

FARM PRICES, HARVEST, IMPORTS, AND FARM REVENUES, UNITED STATES FARM-RAISED CATFISH INDUSTRY, 1977-82

for catfish was found to be price elastic (the particular elasticity coefficient is -1.54, which means that if the farm price of catfish is increased 1%, and other factors affecting catfish demand such as consumer income, population growth, and prices of substitute commodities remain unchanged, the quantity demanded of catfish would decrease 1.54%). Since the percentage change in quantity

Year
1977 ................. 1978................. 1979................. 1980 ................. 1981 ................. 1982................. 1983.................

Farm prices
t/lb. 1 . . . . 57.9 54.6 61.5 67.6 63.8 55.0 61.0

Harvest
Lb. 22,128 30,180 40,632 46,464 60,132 99,408 137,250

Imports
Lb. 17,988 18,372 16,992 14,928 9,624 5,892 4,274

Farm revenues, mil.
Dol. 12.8 16.5 25.0 31.4 38.5 54.7 83.8

Source: Crop Reporting Board, ESS, USDA, and U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Farm-Raised Catfish Processors' Report," various issues. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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AgI riidiculItua x EI -111 PUBLICATION-Highlights ot
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POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR1 101 BULK RATE

Xenipleras to

Agricultural Research 9 84 Penalty for private use, $300

applied1

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