Vol, 31, No. 2

Summer 1984

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of Agricultural Research

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ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION GALE A. BUCHANAN, DIRECTOR

AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS

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SUMMER 1984
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VOL. 31, NO. 2

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If the Squash Is Bitter, Don't Sw~allow It
-S YMAL, 0L CHAMBLI

SSand D.A.

SMTH, Department of H~orticulture

M.D BOND, Aabama Cooperative Extension Service
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Statjion

Light frame structural elements tested were, left to right, composite I-beam, 2 x 10, and 2 x 12.
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Southtrn ine p2 x in 20- ft. pieces'. tionte at timec of specit'fy (2ach1 piece't

10.5 and 2 x 12s purchasetd

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No) quIlit\v sele.ctioni was purchae, other thani to had to Ie giradie stampe 1 (d. lihe lumbtr \ a', cut to IIi lt'ngths h\ It.

rel otate tniatur

al diefets or

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by

All I-bieamsi and~tlumbe~tr were~ testetd staticalXc und11r at 1/3-point lht'I(i load on(1a (i 1.5-ft. span at tine Expim nent Stations Forest Pr odtiis I ahot atoi' A \(ompu)IteI 1con((ott

ist IIIIIItt(tiI( ftn pies of

data. I' o~tu

load and tiflettion t'ach fabici(ate'd beams

im\iIIon loadi cap~acitX ofi th( 21) struct tural I'lem(ents, aX crtaved aiboult 5,TOO 1b., and di~fferenes' amonI)Ig tilt fixt' types XX rec not

statititttalX

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ation oIf nuIII(II(t

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statistic2al Xari fintod to Ine e'-

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R.J, LICHT! and R.C. Tang, Department of Forestry

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Ib',ams. XX l
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solid XX 212
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and counln

quantity longer sections needed fin' floor and roof fruning. such as 3 x 10's and 2 .x 12's \\ itb 20-ft. lengths in structural grades No. 2 and bcttcr, are becouting Icss mailable and more c.epcnskc. In addition, although luutber is graded. there is increasing ccidencc that thc" grading s\ stets does not cffccti\ eb distinguish lunther quality . A possible Solution to the problerat, and one that could base economic adv:uttavcs for Alabama, imokcs the use of composite Ibeants to replace solid seen hearts. Such composite heaut.s, fabricated front smaller, less valuable timber, proved suitable for construction use in Alabama Agricttltttral Experirau"nt Station tests. Use of such materials could procicle it market fin' heretofore tntuscd wood products schilc filling it need for holding materials. I'll(, Auburn study svas deg eloped to establish snore efficient methods ofusing.n ailable forest resources in structural application. Spcc"ificall\, it incestivatcd the rclatiSc pcrforntance of composite 1-1eams in comparison to traditional solid simil lutnbcr.

agricisral ultu are

pros ides solid Sims timber products traditionalb cntplo} ed for light fi-atm IlE'; FOBES"I' HESOIBCI'. that

changing.

construction s\steius in this Saw log quality' and slowk dcc"linimv. The larger and

Intpro cd technology has agate av ailablc a m"sc veneration ofvs oodbascd panels nuuotfactu-ed from otlicnwisc unusahlc and Icss desirable tecs, espec"ialk the broad-Ica\cd species. Bec;ursc these panel products arc

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characterized hs several onlslanding qualitics. thcv have found application it's slicar sobs in built-up structural elciuents. These built-up ntenthers hag(' been used as Stihslilutcs for traditional simil luntbcr. The cxpcriratcutnl composite 1-beasts were fabricated in 20-ft sections with butt joints in the weh.s at 4t. internals. 'I'll(, ssch taterials were lI 13/S-in., three-ply soutbcro pine structural-1 pbsvood, (2) 3/8-in. oriented strand hoard (OSB), and (3) TS-in.

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vcafcrhoard. See photo. Both the OSB and ssafcrhoard ssrrc composed printarik of aspen. 'Flic length of the panel used as web materials vas perpendicular to the heart
axis.

Flanges were southern pine lumber of select structural grade with Suitable ntachinc-stress rating for stiffimss. Flange ltnttbcr contained finger joints at random intcr\als grcat"r than 72 in. A phenol formaldeh\dc adhesive, which is iighl \\ater
resistant. wits used in the flange-\ccb joint

and butt joints. A11 beams were cut to Ili-ft.
length for static bcndinv tests. Solid lttnthcr specinuns leslecl were No. 2

Alabama Agricultural F.ritci-iniclit Station

ION11 IIIA(;1: ()NSLI '\I thet teill of iian aging cr op residue o1n sy soil surface wi th nmini i or no tillage. WXithi the dev elopmnent of effectixve cheica weedl cointrol and souital le planting euf ipm ilent, u se of coniisers atioin tillage xxystemvs has increasedi co(nsidler ablx iin Alabama. Sex eral inimuimii and no-tillage sxystems has e b)112n dtltx opI1 that produtce corn 1 d yite]ts equnal to or higher than those obtained with conxventional tillage. Howtexver, ad-

C

D.L. THUJRLOW and Jl.H. FDWARDS, Department of Agronomy and Soils J.T, EASON, Sand Mountain Substation
the ill-tillage alit in-ross ehiseling tillage, respeetisvel, in 1983. The 3-sear asverage yid of sos beanis in 2-sear rotation wxith cor n, across all thle tillage sx stecils, xxas23 higher than undter conitinuious sos lians, higher SCN couints than other tillage treat-

tditioiial

iniformnationi

is nieetded on conl-

serv aton tillage sy stemls flir soIN beanis or
ini rotation wxith co~rn. sovcns11,( A recen t s ttici bi the A labamia Agoent Station showxed that ricuItur al E xpeim soyblean y ields xxeir1 increased biy eon-

significantlx hligher thlanl under( other tillage
5N sttemsi. till II as soi5 beals. The1 stillnt iiitoite tioun)t u1ndtr lit' niot affettdt lix r otationl wxithi

This reducltion1 of soybI an s ield ndler servxation tillage piractites and erop rotation. Cons entional tillage sNsteims wxere com-i (Aontinulouis so5 beanls lois bei causted b a sos ean es st necinatodle (CN) popuolat ion t pared to in imum andi no-tillage sy stemlis on fountd in Septemiier 1983, tablk 2. SCN so5 beans, coirn, anti xwheat on a Hartsells tine sani idxo aim soil oin the Santi MIotintail) Su11) conts xxete lossr pilots xx htie sos bianls tin wxeri r2otated xxith tillrn than ini continuiouis station at Cirossx ille, fr om 1981 to 198:3. consventioniia] tillage. The m~iinium tillage treatnient consistedl soybI eans, exeplt xwi thi 'Ihc iltiatoitl numbers xxere fnirther r(of pl antiniig corn aind soxvbean s oxver 8- to 9-in.-(deep chisel slots; the no-tillage tireat- duledl iin a doubllteoppiitd5 stemi xxithi nments xxere planted xwitlh a double-disk xxheat for grain. It is speeulateti that the redtucedl time the lantd xwas cropped to sosopener planter directis inito tihe ontilled soil hals 15 tilt reasoni fori this I ttiictioni iln surface. Ross spacinig wxas 36 in. Cropping sequenees xwere continous soybieans; 101Corn1 ields in 1983 were 141, hlighetr 1 tinuouiis cornii eorn-s05vbeans: anti cornI(tateti w5ithI soybans ii 5tl xitha crn iihen wxheat for grain-sos ilanis. WXheat wxas oil all xte ro21 p)lots as a swinter cov5er, incltuding those p)lots wsas groi coxnitlltinuoullsly, ant Sc high~er for the 3-x ax ear erage aero ss all till age, talde 1. not uisedi for grain crop. The wxheat xxas killed Y1ieltls in 198:3 wx2re 101% lossr 111conti on the wxinter co1)r pilots 1t0days blole 1 eentiontal tillage than other tillage 55sstem planting ciorn or soN I)ans (Continuous sosybeani yields wxei e in- xxhen a5 tragttd atcross all cropp))ing .sxxste iis andt lostr 7%4 tfor a 3 stal asvtrage. SCN xa, ereaseti 16r wxithi thle no- till and in-riow steusDer eonsventional chiiseliiig tillage ss olnseitioinal till, wxas grostn The cFi tillage in 1981 and 1982, and 52 and :31% lbx

1hct results of this stuicl slhowx that sos bean y ields twerte inereaseti his coniseri ation~ tillage prlatt icts and c riip ro tation. Furinthter, thet xre(su~lts suggest thait ecultis atinig soyi an e11) clively sill result ill the buiiltdup of sos w~ Itinig tcorn1 Ibeoan cst' nAIi'llatodte's, anti euti a resuilt the builtdop of stunlt ill exelilsit els xxill lieiiatlets. This mlas lbt a factoir toler ielcis ofhthelse trop]s. tribtinlg to loss

FROM TOP: Soybean growth by August 8, 1983, when planted by conventional tillage, chisel tillage, or no tillage in a continuous soybean cropping system.

'.4.

CRPPING, S1 1, INCE L AND SM Il 55,

N Tli )S Oi COIIN L 1981-198:3 treattiieot

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198:31 Xi ii 1:3 'II Otis'orii Per aere xieltd li Cropping~~
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cti uousil ... l SSobeans-corii) Courn-whea.t fill grll in flihlii5.. Ayc agc...

S115

han cy xtlarv ae and (-t I

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20. S 31.0 33.9 28 t6

27..3

31.8
33.8

.32.9 :31.2 30f.5

26.6 32.6
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4601 1(090) 216

Sf06 14:3 1:3

498 21 2

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g.1ai1 soixliliils ill) ,115fiails.

598 :321 1859 Sos beau cxst tanrsli aind cysxl
127 127 121 31.1 118 122 116 28. 7 118 121 30.S5
A( e age f(i .Ix i .. Coro

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Alabamia Agriculturcal Exp)C(rimenlt S tationll

Ammoniation of Fungus-infected Fescue Hay Improves Weight Gain of Steers
S.P. SCHMIDT, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences LA. SMITH, H.W. GRIMES, and J.L. HOLLIMAN Black Belt Substation

Crude protein is determined by measuring total nitrogen and multiplying by 6.25. It should be emphasized that this ammoniation procedure adds nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) to the hay, that this is not natural protein, and that the added nitrogen (shown as urea in the table) has little nutritional value for cattle fed only hay and no grain. The crude fiber and cell wall constituent values show that the fungus-free hay was more mature than the fungus-infected hay. Hay loss during storage was also reduced for the ammoniated hay, probably a result of being covered with plastic. Steers fed ammoniated hay consumed 29.2 and 25.7% more than those fed untreated hay. This response was greater than expected based on other feeding trials. Ammoniation of the fungus-infected hay resulted in a doubling of the daily gains of steers. Most of the increased gains can be accounted for by the increased consumption; however, it was calculated that the digestible energy value of the fungus-infected hay had to be improved approximately 5% to account for all the increased gains. The increased gains observed for steers fed ammoniated, fungus-free hay were not as large as expected based upon other feeding trials. Also, as indicated by the feeding efficiency values, there was no improvement in energy digestibility. The lack of increased gains proportional to the increased intake for the ammoniated, fungus-free hay is unexplainable. Comparing the untreated hays, it was found that infection of tall fescue by the A. coenophialum fungus decreased cattle performance in cool weather as well as warm weather. Hay can be ammoniated anytime. In general, the reaction of the ammonia with the lignin and cellulose in the plant takes 7 to 10 days during hot weather and 30 to 45 days during cold weather. Moisture is important for the reaction, with 8 to 10% moisture being adequate but 15 to 30% more desirable. It is recommended that the treated hay remain covered with plastic until 3 to 7 days before being fed. No toxicity problems have been reported in any cattle fed low quality forages that have been ammoniated. However, researchers in Kansas recently reported that calves nursing cows fed high-quality ammoniated sorghumsudan hay became hyperexcitable and that some of the calves died. Until more information is available, cow-calf producers should refrain from feeding ammoniated, high-quality hay to cows with nursing calves. When working with anhydrous ammonia, keep equipment and gauges well maintained, work upwind from the ammonia, wear goggles and rubber gloves, make sure tears and holes in the plastic are taped before application, and have water nearby in case of

AGES with anhydrous ammonia has to boost feed intake by been shown LOW-QUALITY FORcattle by 15 to 20% and to increase digestibility (and therefore available energy) by 8 to 15%. Research done at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (see Fall 1983 issue of Highlights) also showed that ammoniation of over-mature johnsongrass hay improved intake by steers 10.1 to 17.6% and increased the total digestible nutrients (TDN, a measure of utilizable feed energy) by 9%. Previous research had demonstrated that the gains of steers grazing fungus-infected tall fescue pastures were reduced 40% compared to steers grazing fungus-free tall fescue, and that this difference was even larger when steers fed fungus-free hay during hot weather were compared to steers fed fungusinfected hay. No data were available, however, showing the effects of fungus infection on cattle fed fescue hay during the winter months or if ammoniation would overcome the detrimental effects of the fescue fungus. It was of interest to scientists at the Experiment Station to find that ammoniation of fungus-infected fescue hay dramatically improved its nutritional value for beef cattle.

TREATING

Kentucky 31 tall fescue at the Black Belt Substation that was either infected with or free of the fungus, Acremonium coenophialum, was harvested as hay in large

round bales. Half the bales of each type (fungus-infected or fungus-free) were stacked end-to-end in separate stacks, two bales on the ground and one on top, and covered with 6-mil black polyethylene. The edges of the plastic were covered with gravel to seal in the ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia was injected under the plastic, near the middle of each stack, at the rate of 3 lb. per 100 lb. of hay. The treated bales remained covered from the time of ammoniation (August 4) until 3 days before being fed to cattle, at which time bales were removed one at a time as needed. Untreated bales remained outdoors, uncovered, as is normally done with large, round bales. Beginning November 3, a 47-day drylot feeding trial was conducted using 32 head of steers averaging 562 lb. each. The steers were divided into four groups and the hay was offered free-choice in feeders. Water, salt, and minerals were available at all times. Results from this experiment are summarized in the table. Ammoniation increased the percent crude protein in both the fungus-free and fungus-infected hay.

EFFECTS OF AMMONIATION OF FUNGUS-INFECTED AND FUNGUS-FREE KENTUCKY 31 TALL FESCUE HAY

ItemInfected, emuntreated i

Infected, ammoniated

Fungus-free, untreated

Fungus-free, ammoniated

Hay analysis (dry matter basis) when fed

Crude protein, pct. ......... Equivalent urea, pct........
Crude fiber, pct.......39.1

8.9 0 75.2 6.2
11.3 -.68 . 16.6

14.3 1.87
38.9

6.7 0
41.2

10.0 1.84
42.6

Cell wall constituents, pet. ...
Dry matter loss from baling to

73.9 0
14.6 29.2 1.43 10.2

78.2 9.5
8

74.2 0
8

feeding, pet. ..............
No. animals ................

Animal performance 8 8

Daily dry matter intake, lb. .. Increased intake, pet. ....... Av. daily gain, lb............ Hay dry matter per lb. gain, lb ..................

11.3 -.81 14.0

14.2 25.7 .97 14.6

contact with skin or eyes. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

story about the efficiency of Alabama agriculture. In DATA tell awere 1.33 1920 there dramatic million people living and working on farms in the State. By 1980 the number had plummeted to 87,471, but this efficient group was producing the raw materials to support an agricultural industry that is a major contributor to Alabama's total economy. The farm population is identified only in rural areas and includes all persons living on places of 1 acre or more from which at least $1,000 worth of agricultural products were sold in the previous year. Thus, owneroperators living in urban places and individuals residing on acreages that did not meet the sales criterion are excluded from the farm population. The table, reporting data used in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research, shows trends in Alabama's farm population over the last 60 years. Some changes in definition occurred over the span, but the figures remain generally comparable. For the State as a whole, about 2.3% of the population is classified as rural farm (87,000 out of 3.9 million). Total population grew steadily over the 60-year period, going from 2.3 to 3.9 million. The decline in the number of rural farm people is largely similar among whites and nonwhites, although in the last 2 decades the nonwhite rural farm population has dropped even faster. Until the 1960's, a higher proportion of nonwhites tended to be farm residents, but in 1980 only 0.5% of the nonwhite population was classified as rural farm compared to 2.9% of the white population. Nonwhites now represent about 5.7% of the State's rural farm population compared to 38.6% in 1920. The map shows the distribution of rural farm persons across Alabama. This segment of the population tends to be clustered in the northern and southeastern parts of the State. Cullman and DeKalb show the largest number of rural farm people, more than 4,500, reflecting the many small and part-time farms found in these counties. Madison, Lauderdale, and Limestone have around 3,000, and Lawrence, Morgan, Marshall, Blount, Baldwin, Coffee, Geneva, and Houston have more than 2,000 rural farm

POPULATION

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residents each. Clarke, Wilcox, Bibb, Greene, Bullock, and Coosa counties each have fewer than 500 rural farm residents. Although not shown in the table or map, counties also can be compared on the percentage of their population that is rural farm. DeKalb, Cherokee, Lawrence, and Geneva counties have the highest proportion of rural farm residents, more than 8% each. Four central-city metropolitan counties-Montgomery, Jefferson, Mobile, and Calhoun-

TRENDS IN ALABAMA'S RURAL FARM POPULATION BY RACE, 1920-80

Year Total No. 1,447,032 1,700,844 1,849,097 2,079,591 2,283,617 2,535,823 2,873,289

1920........... 1930........... 1940........... 1950........... 1960........... 1970........... 1980...........

White Farm population No. Pct. 819,162 56.6 49.4 839,531 860,687 46.5 641,908 30.9 278,024 12.2 128,997 5.1 82,500 2.9

Total No. 900,562 944,834 983,290 982,152 983,123 903,000 996,283

Nonwhite Farm population No. 515,082 496,542 477,767 318,585 124,831 30,482 4,971 Pct. 57.2 52.6 48.6 32.4 12.7 3.4 .5

Total population No. 2,347,594 2,645,678 2,832,387 3,061,743 3,266,740 3,438,823 3,869,572

and Lee County have less than 1% rural farm residents. The shrinking number of rural farm people has important implications for the conservation, wise use, and productive development of the State's fundamental natural resource, the land (about 27% of the State's land area is in agriculture and more than two-thirds is forested). Fewer people are using increasingly potent technology to make significant decisions about larger sets of natural resources. These decisions can protect our soil and water assets for the future and generate employment for many people today, or result in waste and a legacy of lost opportunity. Education and research efforts must reach a narrower segment of the population with effective solutions to current and long-range problems to generate more jobs, business activity, and income from the agricultural economy, as well as assure well-being for all Alabamians. Farmers may be small in numbers, but they continue to be a vital force in Alabama's economy.
7

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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Carryover Residue Levels of Alar in Apple Trees Sprayed the Preceding Spring and Summer
WA. DOZIER, JR., K.S. RYMAL, and J.W. KNOWLES, Department of Horticulture AMINOZIDE (ALARŪ) applied as foliar sprays has been used as an aid in overcoming certain physiological problems associated with apple production. Daminozide decreases vegetative growth and enhances flowering and fruiting of young trees when applied 21 days after bloom. Daminozide applied 8 weeks prior to harvest increases fruit firmness and red color development, delays maturity, prevents fruit drop, reduces scald, and delays the development of water core. These effects are of great economic advantage to apple growers. Recently, however, there has been concern over the use of daminozide because of its implication in the production of tumors in mice, and because its hydrolysis or thermal breakdown product, 1,1-dimethyl-hydrazine (UDMH), has been shown to be a carcinogen. Recent research work at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has shown that daminozide, when used properly, presents no residue problem. The EPA tolerance level of 30 p.p.m. for daminozide residue is much greater than that found in treated fruit. Daminozide residues in fresh apples and daminozide residues and UDMH in processed applesauce were found to be low and well below the EPA tolerance levels when daminozide was applied at recommended rates and time of application. However, some questions were raised about the carryover of daminozide in treated plants and whether this carryover residue could accumulate in the fruit. A study was initiated to determine the daminozide residue levels in fruit and other plant parts the year following treatment application. Daminozide was applied as foliar sprays in 1982 at the recommended amount of 1.5 lb. of daminozide in 100 gal. water (1,500 p.p.m.) and at excessive rates of 3,000 and 6,000 p.p.m. Sprays were applied 21 days after full bloom, 8 weeks before harvest, 2 weeks before harvest, and on the day of harvest. Residue levels were determined in spur buds, bark, and xylem, and terminal buds, bark, xylem, and lateral buds of current year's vegetative growth on December 20, 1982, and March 24 and August 25, 1983. Residue levels were determined in fruit samples collected at maturity on August 25, 1983. Daminozide residues were found in all plant parts at each sample date and the levels ofthe residues were affected by both the rate and time of applicaton. In general, residue levels increased as rates were increased, but the response to rate was less when treatments were applied 21 days after bloom than when treatments were applied closer to harvest. Daminozide applied at the early application date had either dissipated or been diluted by tree and fruit growth over the summer so there were smaller differences in residues due to rate of daminozide. Residue levels were found to increase as treatments were applied closer to harvest. On the December sampling date, the highest residue levels were found in the spur and terminal buds and spur bark and xylem, while the lowest residues were found in the stem bark and xylem. In March, residue levels increased in all buds (terminal, spur, and lateral); as buds began to swell, daminozide moved into them from other parts of the tree. By August 25, 1983, however, there were few differences between treatments, and residue levels were about the same for all plant parts. Contrary to previous reports for the South, daminozide residues in apple trees are persistent throughout the winter in Alabama. Residues of daminozide were found in apple fruit harvested in 1983, a year after application of the growth regulator. However, residue levels were below 1 p.p.m. for all treatments except those at 3 and 6 lb. per 100 gal. applied on the day of harvest in 1982 which had residue levels of 1.4 and 2.4 p.p.m., respectively. Use of daminozide posed no problem with carryover residues in fruit when spray applications were made at the recommended rate and application dates. When daminozide was applied at 1.5 lb. per 100 gal. at the proper times, the residue levels in plant parts were present at low levels and did not differ significantly from check treatments. Daminozide residues were found in all vegetative plant parts with the highest residue levels being in the buds. Daminozide residues persisted through the dormant season but had dissipated by harvest time the season following treatment application. Residue levels found in the fruit the season following application were very low. From this data, the use of daminozide would pose no problem with carryover residues in fruit when spray applications were made at the recommended rate and application dates.

DAMINOZIDE CARRYOVER RESIDUE LEVELS (P.P.M.) SAMPLED IN APPLE TREE PARTS AND FRUIT

Plant material sampled

Residue by application rate and treatment date
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4-22
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6,000 p.p.m.

6-29

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9.5 3.1 4.6 17.0 3.3 2.4 2.2 10.9 3.2 3.7 25.4 10.4 1.5 .8 16.2 13.7 9.6 44.4 19.7 3.3 7.9 .4

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Alabama AgriculturalExperiment Station

MANAGING ALFALFA FOR HAY
C.Y. WARD and D, KEE, Department of Agronomy and Soils

Treatment E represents the presently out of alfalfa calls for good recommended hay management for alfalfaYOUR includes worth management. This money's timing harvested when 10% of plants have bloomed hay cuttings for top yield and quality and for ("bloom stage"). At this growth stage the long lasting stands. plants are still leafy and contain about Preliminary results of Alabama Agri- 18-20% crude protein. After being harcultural Experiment Station research indi- vested, it takes alfalfa about 30 days to again cate that cutting once or twice at the bud reach the bloom stage. This provides sufstage, with other cuttings at early bloom, ficient time for plants to store starch in their provides a good combination of yield and hay roots for a strong regrowth following the next quality. Making all cuttings at the bud stage cutting or after overwintering. reduced total yield. How this cutting Yield of alfalfa hay averaged over all locamanagement-and date of last cuttingtions ranged from 10,750 lb. per acre for affects stand life will be determined as the stands cut repeatedly at the bloom stage to project progresses. 8,900 lb. when cut repeatedly at the bud The test plantings were made in October stage. All other treatments were inter1982, with Florida 77 alfalfa seeded at mediate in yield, see table. Harvesting alfalfa at the bud stage in early Shorter, Marion Junction, Fairhope, Brewton, and Prattville. All sites except Marion spring followed by four harvests at the bloom Junction had acid soil and were limed to stage did not reduce yields below the recbring the soil pH to 6.5. The Marion Junc- ommended cutting management. However, tion test is on an alkaline Sumter soil. Plant harvesting more than one time each year at nutrients were incorporated at 0-60-200 (lb. the bud stage reduced hay yield by slightly N, P, K) plus 4 lb. boron (B) per acre at all more than 1/2 ton per acre. The reduction in yield from more frequent locations. The alfalfa seed were inoculated and broadcast on the surface at 20 lb. per bud stage cuttings may be offset by the acre and cultipacked to firm the seed to the higher quality of hay obtained at this younger stage of growth. Hand separation of soil. Experimental cutting treatments began in alfalfa plants into leaves and stems revealed spring 1983 to compare yield under different that bud stage has 57% leaves, compared to harvest schedules and to determine how approximately 50% for the bloom stage. date of final harvest affects stand longevity Leaves of alfalfa contain higher percentages of crude protein, sugars, vitamins, and minincluded: erals than do the stems. As might be expected, higher average hay Treatment Stage of cutting yields during the first season were obtained A ........... Bud', bloom 2 thereafter B ........... Bloom, then bud alternating from plots harvested the last time in Nowith bloom C ........... Bud, then bloom alternating with bud Bud continuously D ........... EFFECT OF CUTTING MANAGEMENT ON ALFALFA HAY YIELDS E ........... Bloom continuously F ........... Bud, bloom, bud, bloom No. of cuttings and hay yield/acre, by location Av. yield, (last cut in September) Prattville Fairhope Shorter Brewton Marion Jct. Treatment Bud, bloom, bud, bloom, G ........... all locations Cut- Yield Cut- Yield Cut- Yield Cut- Yield Cut- Yield bloom (last cut in Novemtings tings tings tings tings ber) Lb. No. Lb. No. Lb. No. Lb. No. Lb. No. Lb. H ........... Bud, bloom, bud, bloom, 10,600 6 16,100 6 12,800 5 9,700 6 10,400 5 4,050 bloom, (last cut in De- A.............. 10,350 B. 6 14,450 6 15,350 4 7,400 8 9,400 5 5,050 ............. cember) 9,850 ............. 5 8,950 8 8,850 5 3,400 6 15,450 6 12,150 C.

GETTING

vember, as compared to September or October cuttings. It will take several seasons to fully assess the influence of late fall harvests on alfalfa persistence. Among the experimental locations, highest per acre hay yields were obtained at Fairhope (15,500 lb.), followed by Prattville (12,750 lb.), Brewton (9,650 lb.), Marion Junction (8,300 lb.), and Shorter (4,300 lb.). Yields at Shorter and Marion Junction were restricted by low rainfall in August, September, and October. At locations where high populations of the alfalfa weevil developed on the spring growth, plots harvested at the bud stage suffered less weevil damage and had higher yields than where the first harvest was delayed to the bloom stage. This relationship was noted at Marion Junction and Fairhope. Since the alfalfa weevil affects only the first spring harvest, a logical approach to avoid use of pesticides is to harvest the first cutting at the bud stage. This will eliminate the weevil by taking away its food supply. Although taking the first cutting at the bud stage may reduce yield, the hay will be leafier and higher in quality than if cut at a more advanced growth stage. In summary, the results of 1 year's comparison of different clipping frequencies show that alfalfa cut at the bud stage each time will result in a lowered yield. Alfalfa can be harvested in the bud stage once or twice annually if subsequent harvests are made at an early bloom stage. Since summer showers are a major problem with hay making, this schedule offers flexibility for fitting the cutting schedule with the weather. While higher yields are usually obtained by delaying harvest to the bloom stage, cutting can be done at an earlier stage without fear of reducing total hay yield for the season. Serious alfalfa weevil damage can be avoided without the use of pesticides by making the first harvest of alfalfa each spring at the bud stage. This eliminates the weevil's feed source and provides a leafy, high quality hay.

D .............

5

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8

8,400

4 7,400 7 11,600 'Bud stage is characterized by a developed E ............. 8,800 5 9,100 5 and swollen flower bud, usually 7-10 days F ............. 5 8,250 7 9,300 G ............. before flowering. 6 10,500 5 9,200 H ............. 'Bloom is when 10-25% of plants have MEean.......... 9,650 8,300 3LLlllll IVII~~L;VILY LVIILalllIll~jllCI ~C L~GaVC3 VI aiiaiia flowers.

6 5 5 5 5

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7 7 7 6 6

14,350 15,250 15,000 16,800 16,750 15,500

6 6 6 6 6

10,750 14,450 11,700 12,750 12,100 12,750

8,900 10,750 9,800 10,200 10,500

10

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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C.E. SNIPES ana R.H. WALKER, Department of Agronomy ana Soils N.R. MARTIN, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

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Litter Separation for Reuse or Fuel

Litter weight,

pct. retained 35-

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25 20eB 15
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BROILER

J,L. KOON and CA. FLOOD, JR. Dept. of Agricultural Engineering R.N, BREWER Department of Poultry Science PRODUCERS in Alabama

4

6

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Various fractions held by different sieve sizes are shown for new litter and for litter that had been used for two or three batches of broilers.

depend mainly upon pine shavings and pine sawdust as a source of litter. Each year over 500 million broilers are grown on this litter and add approximately 2.5 billion lb. of manure (wet basis) to this litter. When broiler houses are cleaned, the shavings-manure mixture is used primarily for fertilizer and as a component of cattle feed. These uses generally require little or no processing. There has been increasing interest in drying and separation of the larger wood particles from the manure and finer wood particles to increase the value and use potential of these components. Research at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station has centered around separation and characterization of these components to determine their potential for use as animal feed, fuel for heating, and for relittering poultry houses. Initial studies were designed to determine the particulate makeup of pine shavings as they are received from the planer mill. Composite samples were taken from a truckload and separated using a SoiltestŪ brand shaker equipped with pan type sieves ranging from 4 mesh to 20 mesh (4.75 to 0.85 mm opening) screen sizes. A measured amount of shavings was added to the number 4 (top) sieve and shaken for 5 minutes. The litter fractions retained in each succeeding sieve were collected and weighed. The results of these tests are shown in the figure. The large particle size consisted of all particles failing to pass the number 8 sieve. This determination was based on fine particle size considered compatible with manure to be pelleted or otherwise used as fertilizer or animal feed. The large particles could then be used for relittering of poultry houses or burning for fuel. Based on an average of multiple tests, the large particle

fraction made up 72.1% of the sample and the fines 27.9% of the sample weight. The second series of trials included litter taken from floor pens following two and three consecutive broods of broilers. When separated at moisture levels normally encountered in broiler houses, large particles made up 22.7% of the total and fines 77.3%. Further separation of the manure from the large particles would require additional processing. The various fractions held by sieves 4 through 20 and passing the 20-mesh sieve are shown in the figure. This shift in percent of large and fine particles from new shavings represents the dried manure present in the sample. Preliminary separation trials on used litter from various sources point out the variability in consistency of litter and the effect of management factors on litter moisture during the growout. When the litter is allowed to cake during the growout, the large particles stick together, making accurate separation difficult. Along with drying, some type of agitation or grinding may be necessary to completely separate the manure from the large particles of wood. As the number of successive broods grown on litter increases, the larger wood particles tend to break down, reducing the amount
reclaimable for use as fuel or replacement

ings, and would have a value of $150. If this portion were burned in a furnace or boiler, based on relative B.t.u.'s generated and a burning efficiency of 50%, it would replace 466 gal. of LP gas having a value of $359. The fine portion would have a value of approximately $2,590 when mixed into cattle feed and would be worth approximately $740 as fertilizer. Particle size of this fine portion is small enough to blend well with other feed ingredients and would not interfere with the pelleting process, should it be used. Broiler production trials using unseparated pine shavings, large particles, or fines as litter indicated no major difference in litter management requirements. Although birds grown on large particles had slightly better feed conversions on new litter, no significant differences in feed conversion or weight gain were found, see table. More research is needed to determine how poultry litter may be better utilized and the economics of use.
EFFECT OF LITTER PARTICLE SIZE ON GROWTH AND FEED CONVERSION IN BROILERS

Treatment

4-wk.-old birds Av. Feed wt. conv. Lb. 1.70 1.69
1.61 1.61

6-wk.-old birds Av. Feed wt. cony. Lb. 3.69
3.71 3.71

Trial 1'
1-control .... 2.12
2.04 2.10 2-large ...... 1.74 3-fine....... 1.69 2 Trial 2A

litter. The percentage of original large litter particles reclaimed after 3-4 successive broods is approximately 50 to 70%. This large particle fraction would amount to approximately 6 tons from a 12,000-sq.-ft. broiler house. The fines plus manure would amount to approximately 74 tons.
When predicting relative values of these materials, allowance must be made for planned use and the value of new materials

1-control .... 2.09 2-large ...... 2.08 3-fine ....... 2.09 3
Trial 3B

1.57 1.51 1.54 1.59 1.54 1.52

3.89 3.89 3.84 3.84 3.86 3.87

1.88 1.86 1.88 1.88 1.79 1.71

4-control .... 1.99 5-large ...... 2.01 . 6-fine....... .2.01

replaced. As poultry litter, the large particle portion of 6 tons would replace new shav-

'Eight replicates per treatment. 2 New pine shavings used. 3 Second grow-out on litter.

12

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

I. A\ l '15 arc the ntuuhcr I cits h clop on most fat ins in I1 counties in south( tst - htlrtma. In 1983, f.u tiers in tlhesc counties plantccl 183,000 acres of peanuts and pro(lueecl an average Metal of 2,310 Ib. per acre.

The price recck cal for peanuts by fin-mc r_ has not kept pace with the iocreascal cost c,, proaluction. Profit or loss is often (Ictcl mined by the farnuer's ability to control pro cluction costs. Onc way to control such cost ito re(luce the number of tinecs a tractor all,
its equipment passes over a ficl(l. par

I

4

t,

ticularl\ syhcn the land i.s being prepared for planting. "No-till" and "Inininnun till" are
popular terms for planting and ,growing crops without turning or cultivating the soil. If this tcclnticluc has it place in peanut production, it offers an opportunity to reduce input costs.

To (lcterutirnc how pcanut.s might perform under reduced tillage systems, 10 Alabama Agricultural Eyperinlcnt Station cspcri tucnts acre conducted on cooperating farn, ers' fields ut 1982 and 1983. 'I'll(, 13tosyn Ilaralin How-"fill,, s\as used fin- planlntg ii stnull grain stubble or residue ino-till treat
item. and this was compared to a(ljacent,

.

s.

.td~r

,

norntall\ clikkatcd plots.'I'reatntents were replicated fora- times. f:ach f(u-mcr chose his osvn herbicide program to control wccd.s, as well as all otbcr cultural practices. Hcscarchcrs at Auburn l niycrsity made ntonthb weal counts in each plot during June, Jule, anal August. " \\ hits mold hits were couutcd in all plots 1 week before harvest is hit is 12 in. of rovy that has been killed by white nml(li. Soil samples were taken from each plot in August and assayed fin- ncntatodc abundance. I inally, yields and grades were taken for all plots. Findings from these 2 gars of research
tar encouraging but not definitive. All farm-

D. HARTZOG and F.ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
traclictory yiclcl effects were obtained with peanuts plantccl in wheat or ryc stubble 195:31 and in paracluat-killed hoot-stage rye. t 19821.

cast Alabama scenes feasible, climinatiug all tillage aloes not. These sanely soils rcaclik
compact, even under

the

impact of' rain-

(Nearly, ntininonu tillage research with peanuts needs to be continued. A1'hercas reducing tillage on the sanab soils of south-

(hops, an(I land turning will be ncc(le(l sontctintcs during the year to loosen the scufuce soil to alloxv for freer tnoventcnt ofair an(I water into the soil.

Twt.r L \1 (Jett \\ vrl) Srrc na Coyntoi.i.r.o I\ AIuun si ni i. 1'r vt rs, 1952-198:3 Sitc
nanlber

Farnxcr H. & i. Prtitt
I. I Itt tit't

Soil 'cries 1952
I uyu;n I,

\V'ccd spccics conhollcd

ers cffcctiycly controlled \ycc(ls by chemicals, and yields were unaffecteal by wcc(1 pressure. The 11MJ01- wccal spccics that bad to be controllccl are listed, table 1. A\ ith the csccption of horscncttlc, carpctwcc& wild turnip, spring amaranth, au(1 wild nntstard (all of which ill-c controllc(l by cultivation), these same weeds are generally present in conycrntiornally tillccl peanuts. In no case was \yhitc nul(I more scycrc in the ntiointunt-tillccl plots than in conventional plots. Aor svgs there any aliflicrcocc in ncntatodc counts between reclucc(I tillage turd couycnlional tillage. Although weals- white mold, anal neonttodesdid not appear to affect yield, yield was sontctintcs ,tfl'Cocd by tillage, table 2. fn 1982,, slight yield increase for ntininnnu tillage occurred at site 2 :uxl it severe yiclcl
loss occurred at site -1. l0 1953. yield was

...

......

I. It

itIIc

lt

I t ttt'

iAlepod. \cllocc nutsedgc, horscncttlc Or:ui churg I, Florida bcg_'itmccaf cellow nutscdge- sicklepod Not Ielk sl horscncttlc, crabgrass Norfolk Is crabgrass, c:npctwecd. vcllov oittscdgc Florida begg;uwccd- crabgr;u, licnifM Is 1953 \,n-ina sl (myca, \cild turnip. Florida bcgt;ancced I)otb:ut sl . crabgrass. spin aiiiarauth- bnrm:udgrass uutscdgc- false tnorningSlore, si(k1cpod Luce Is buflitlogrtss, crabgrass, Florida heggarwced Fuclnay is Florida bc;t;:uscccd- uutwdgc, cild nntst:nd Ronifac sl

Itlil r: 2. (t\

i

tN

Xt. X\o

\11I\x

I \t

it

Itt \trt

t 'iiios

19,)~t2-19 i3

Pcr acre cicld by site number 2 4

5

Tilg

trclh2n

lit.
5- 100(

lbt
1,2601 1,It5)) 5 t10 :5.2110

1911 11111
1111',I'll. fil 1. .. . . .. ..

.3,770, 2
')0)
000-11

:3,650)
33701 I 371'

2,1201 2,541

sollwvyhatt higher at site I anal slightb lower at site 2 \( ith ntirninuun tillage. The reasons lint- these yield cffcets arc not known. (:on-

i i'ittl

t

plantit

illt X I s

XXt~ le

n pwboo i

tilt1

mtht

pt

Alabama Agricultural E'XI)criniclit Station

The

ddnm Costs of Income Taxes for Alabama Farmers
G.D. HANSON, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
TAX PREPARATION COSTS: PREPARATION FEES AND HouRs TIME SPENT

tax rates are currently receiving INCOME at both the federal much attentionTAX provisions and and state legislative levels. It is important to recognize both the advantages and disadvantages of the present tax system as it affects farmers. Many of the disadvantages of the income
tax system are "hidden," not showing up as a

KEY

Question

Response
Yes No

Did you prepare your taxes last year?.............. 2. What was your tax preparation fee? (dol.) .......
1.

84 0-100 272 0-39 216 0-9 111
0-3 72

433 100-300 112 40-79 149 10-19 139
3-6 67

3.

cash charge in farm ledgers. To examine these issues, a questionnaire from the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station addressing income tax issues was mailed to a random sample of 1,000 Alabama farmers in the early spring of 1983. Survey Findings Tax complexity problems were explored in several ways. First, individual farmers were asked to indicate their "familiarity" with key tax provisions such as capital gains deductions. Of the farmers responding, 61% expressed little or no familiarity with these key tax provisions. This is disturbing since farm taxpayers need to be well-acquainted with tax provisions to properly and efficiently file and manage their taxes. Seventy-seven percent of the responses "strongly agree" that tax preparation requires outside assistance, and 60% "strongly
agree" that too much tax assistance is

and tax filing? (hr.) .......... 4. Farm tax sheltering activity begins at what tax rate? (pet.). 5. Tax savings for each hour spent on tax management? (dol.) .......... 6. Should tax management have a higher or lower priority? ....
iuuuiu I-vvr~rrr~, rui~ urirri r usu

Hours spent on financial record keeping, tax analysis

300-500 27 80-119 79 20-29 106
6-9 57 Lower 14

More Average than 500 cost 31 $141 200 120-199 or more 21 26 More than 30 69
9-12 38 More than12 52

Average hours 61

Average savings per hr. $6.50

Higher Unchanged 376 30

v vv

respondents spent less than 40 hours per year on tax management and record keeping. However, the remaining 56% of respondents spent from 40-79 hours to more than 200 hours. The average estimated time spent managing taxes was 61 hours. For farms with more than 100 tillable acres, the average estimated time spent was 83 hours. Valuing this

needed. The third issue, that legislators should be concerned about the highly complex nature of managing and filing taxes, also received strong agreement from 61% of the farmers responding. Only 1 to 5% of respondents expressed disagreement with the tax complexity issue. Tax complexity translates into increased tax management and record-keeping costs for farmers, as illustrated in the accompanying table. Only 84 of 517 farmers prepared their own taxes in 1982. Nearly 84% (433) received tax filing assistance. For most farmers, the cost of tax preparation was less than $100 (line 2), while 112 farmers paid $100-300, 27 farmers $300-500, and 31 farmers paid more than $500 for tax preparation. Multiplying the average amount of each category times the number of responses in that category results in an average estimated tax preparation charge of $141. For farmers with more than 100 tillable acres, the estimated cost was more than twice as high, $288 per farm. The true cost of tax preparation also includes the time spent keeping such records
as sales receipts, cash costs, depreciation,

time at $5.00 per hour, the combined preparation fee and hours spent in tax management would be $446 for all farms and $703 for farms with more than 100 tillable acres. Time and tax preparation fee costs in the $446-703 range would undoubtedly be a significant share of average income taxes paid by many Alabama farmers (especially in recent low-income years). For those farmers with both high preparation fees and also
large numbers of hours spent in record keeping and tax management, the average tax

more than $12.00. For those farmers with more than 100 tillable acres, the average estimated savings per hour was $8.77. Given this relatively high level of tax savings in tax management, it is not surprising that an overwhelming number of farmers, with an opinion on this issue, suggested a higher priority for tax management was suitable (376 of 420 responses). A final "hidden" cost of the tax system has to do with tax influences on farmer investment decisions. Capital investments can provide immediate tax savings in the form of investment credits, depreciation, and interest deductions. Because of this short run, tax planning may influence farmers to undertake investments to save current tax dollars. However, often such investments weaken the financial health of the firm by "loading" the farm business with higher costs of production and long-term loan repayment commitments. The influence of taxes on investment decisions was tested for in the survey. There is widespread agreement among
respondents that the tax system encourages

preparation costs would be substantially higher. The reasons that tax record keeping and management require large numbers of hours are related to items 4 and 5, see table. First, farmers believe it pays to actively shield farm income at low marginal tax rates. This is shown in line 4 where 250 of the 425 respondents (or 59%) indicated they shield income from taxes in the 0 to 9% and 10 to 19% marginal income tax brackets. These are relatively low levels of tax rates and this perhaps signifies that tax sheltering strategies are widely available in farming. Supporting this conclusion, item 5 in the table shows that most farmers believe they
can achieve more than $6.00 in tax savings

farmers to substitute machinery and capital for labor (93% agreement), encourages machinery purchases in years of high income (85% agreement), and provides incentives to

purchase land to lower taxes (84% agreement). Disagreement with the first two
statements was less than 5%, and for the

third statement, 16% moderately or strongly disagreed. The above suggests that tax management has a strong influence on investment decisions. While taxes are an important man-

investment credits, and capital gains. As shown in line 3 of the table, 216 of the 491

for each hour spent managing taxes. That is, 147 of the 286 respondents estimate tax savings are in the range of $6.00 to $8.99 to

agement factor, economic efficiency (maintaining low-cost production) should be a much more important goal for farmers.

14

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

iii

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FIG. 1. Rietationship between fiuorescence and sperm concentration. \/i/lnnhi \
1

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iitilli/

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ht, xxc lat, aitt s\\ (ctt pittoei. N1 ih olttir idla crops.x itiixxt Itigltc\ filix on itulix ti, fai iiitlttate ti uti potnial fuitn 11 ixc-

J.H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

I
cted

tn ox ec tini t xitiId icr that apit beani \ ilix I lii~h pecars toib lint itit soi

Altaaia xicitix xxrr

hcli"'hc

ini 1952 tuan

far reliii t3Int realxiti (ta iii~r tweit lYSax scars ctips ac-ii froniit rp.
niiulx fI otti abut 'I'bisx tiiaie t rie t i

reiceipts. oi li lindan

157 oif casii fur tcire aboiut xxwith
tt xtese ltio

hrit pit

fiiiii-u lcipts ini(he Stlte t

aiti xxx itt poltatoesx Sox licaix ix eci the 1 xamiias inu 197 i. 26 liii per itie Lowesx ct sicll liiin xlsti (iopx in g (l h 30i car)sii xxuri in 19.51, a x ai ot exliem chii roiuight. Fiir all tropix cxccpt xiantsxii ixe crat'c xichlxl fini 197 -I-S3 xxtic ixlowe i Xlahaui f thanth I. S.axt iau'. Ili Alaatt ix musnt

u

itihj pattical prodiiti oni s\ steinos proi tlii e tiix t 'til ttuti iiif binii usxtt in irtxiarcx Siit

sct ii ipxoog

rn tehpcitn

Co \It
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[I\\ Ix o(.5 \3 I xxi
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i

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tiiii

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-

1311 Cropsititi il w
1

B1.
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1311 2 4
35.li5

13it 20.6 22.2 1.6 3(.0 28. 5.5

Lb
393 466 7.3 1:31
49~

Lb.
927 2 _471 1.547

Cut. 10-4.5 132 6 2S.1

(lit.

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malit art ofixt labaxt' toiltll aix xlitr ouiatitx niwe cpintlictis abtcfni to impx oite ilst tiotate adntage oft axtntitl tiixt forlt

9.51-63..... 111--1-S3 ..... Diflliuiluc .... 19(51-3 ... ....

:3(1.11
5(19

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5.

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1974-3.....

littiicce... \lcausx xhe iiilit
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42.2

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te leiilttt
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I.ouil Statlis 1974-8......

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5-14%

S55%

697

7S%

95'k

1011/

50(/

5%9

produiciil ai xraxt Sucth xonatte real etait tt

ar cost ax ines e deiprecix ationli

tiic ntitci tiipx lution ali 'h\ltliaiafa

1

ilci

Trends in annual yields for eight crops in the United States and Alabama.
prou
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detliciI ftit i'if L'.
suibsxtit tiallitl

tn

.it

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tio ix ceah e x

in the

suhiacrop jutdc

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1a

ui ait

aiind ttos~. For c - Apc labax fXamiia aitxe othex coiltbct fboitdrx oduiixctio xaicit I .47ai proi Ilint
ixaint sothtix

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Effect of Trickle Irrigation, Nitrogen Rate, and Method of Nitrogen Application on Field-grown Japanese Holly
D.J. FAKES, C.H. GILLIAM, arid H.G. PONDER Department of Horticulture

prouctioni

I

N

testl

usx('d werI :30, 6tt

120) old 210 Ili.

H lS E D N U iS Vl k T
practices. (n )o'
plant fin xax

( 1 1O 1 10 P ) (
to pro 0(10(1

per act)' xplit ('If)b Ia cations ixduhrill l' eac I rti

mong011 foot appliixx x(ixl I i(l ti aso4

high1 iai~tci

it shorIitr ptrductiok

tiiliotll

of 12t0 Ib. N per act e fio ftikl
xtock.

(lxxi ilrstxt'

wiertiti is
irfigtion

it t i' i

ii~tio i nithtlg

d br~lue o

))xtr

111111011tot is cot

feld

onni(lx

-gr~nnr tc prt'xxllt nenslln'ixtii4 emiitter't I gil. pe'r latox atics'rt fate hourt xxgs intll'd pr ill till ttrickil' ittrigationi hetxt25 (If pait aso tot x hll torx pits xatl'trxtt lixtintaoll anxd matain AntK xxn ati~' thl lasx oixc plant Atiitthxpleli~ h (Itof xxat('t tilac oxtrIile( irig.aton ax xxor o sti xaf ofi x irrg th ltterall~ lin o s f tilelx izrlx
sic
clit uiot)itl ir

nor rcti xtor ck a

A row of irrigated Japanese holly.

tiloixtitc II
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for

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Inadequate Vitamin C Nutrition Found in Smoking Adolescent Females
R.E. KEITH and S.B. MOSSHOLDER Department of Home Economics Research

ADOLESCENT

quently are a high risk group as FEMALES frerelated to nutritional status. Because of their rapid growth, adolescents generally have greater nutrient requirements than adults. Various dietary surveys have indicated that many adolescents obtain less than twothirds of the recommended dietary allowance for vitamin C. Vitamin C is necessary for many important functions in the body, such as the proper utilization of iron, the detoxification of many drugs and chemicals, the production of various hormones, and healing of wounds. Deficiency of vitamin C can cause easy bruising, swollen and inflamed gums with possible loss of teeth, anemia, muscle pain when touched or moved, poor wound healing, fracture of bones, increased infections, depression, and
eventual death if the deficiency is serious

to assess the vitamin C status of a group of smoking and nonsmoking adolescent females. This objective was met by evaluating the dietary intake and plasma vitamin C levels in these girls. The population sample for the study included 69 adolescent girls (11 smokers, 58 nonsmokers) aged 14 and 16 years in Lee and Chambers counties, Alabama. Two 24-hour diet recalls were obtained from subjects with an interval of at least 2 weeks occurring between recalls. The first diet interviews were conducted in the subjects' homes. For the second recall, the girls were transported to Auburn University where data on their smoking habits and blood samples were obtained. The dietary records were analyzed for intake of vitamin C using nutrient composition tables. The blood samples were analyzed in the laboratory for vitamin C content. The smoking girls consumed an average of one-half pack of cigarettes per day. This group ingested less vitamin C and had lower plasma levels of the vitamin when compared to the nonsmoking group, table 1. To exclude the effect of dietary intake on plasma vitamin C levels, a subgroup of nonsmoking females (23 girls) who had dietary vitamin C intakes approximately equal to those of the smoking group was selected, table 2. When smokers and nonsmokers were matched for dietary vitamin C intake, the plasma vitamin levels of the smokers were still significantly reduced in comparison to nonsmokers. These findings with

regards to smoking and vitamin C status are consistent with reports on adults. When compared to current recommended dietary allowances, the nonsmokers as a group had a good intake of vitamin C while the smokers' intakes would be rated as poor. Plasma vitamin C levels of the nonsmokers were good, but the plasma levels of the smokers would be classified as low. The smokers in the present study were from a low-income level, which may have contributed to their reduced vitamin C intakes. Also, many of the smokers were age 16, and these older teenagers have more direct control over their diets and have more opportunity to eat away from home at eating establishments which serve foods that are typically low in vitamin C. Smoking has also been reported to reduce appetite, which may be another factor contributing to the reduced dietary intake of vitamin C by the adolescent female smokers. Although vitamin C intake may differ between smokers and nonsmokers, other factors may be involved in vitamin C nutrition. When a subgroup of nonsmokers was selected to have vitamin C intakes in the same range as the smokers, there was still a significant reduction in plasma vitamin C levels in the smoking group. This finding suggests that cigarette smoking is in some fashion interfering with the absorption and/or utilization of vitamin C in this group of smoking teenagers. In summary, nonsmoking teenagers in the present study showed good status with respect to vitamin C intakes and plasma levels. However, smoking teens had poor intakes of vitamin C and extremely low plasma levels of the vitamin, which could contribute to health problems. These findings provide another compelling reason for abstaining from smoking.

TABLE 1. AVERAGE DIETARY INTAKE AND PLASMA VITAMIN C LEVELS IN SMOKING AND NONSMOKING ADOLESCENT FEMALES

enough. Cigarette smoking is known to adversely affect vitamin C status. Studies have indicated that smokers consistently have lower body tissue levels of vitamin C than do nonsmokers. Also, the effect of smoking on vitamin C levels is directly related to the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Several recent studies report that 15-20% of 15- to 17-year-old teenage girls are regular cigarette smokers, indicating a potential problem of vitamin C deficiency in this nutritionally vulnerable population group. In light of these considerations, the objective of the present investigation at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station was

Group Smokers .............

Vit. C Plasma vit. C intake, mg/100 ml ml mg/daymg/ 0.3 232

TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF AVERAGE PLASMA VITAMIN C CONCENTRATONS OF SMOKERS AND NONSMOKERS ON MATCHED DIETARY INTAKES OF VITAMIN C

Vit. C Plasma vat. C, Group Smokers ............. Nonsmokers .......... . .

intake,
32 39

mg/100 ml 0.3 1.0

18

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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POSTAGE PAID U.S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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Gale A. Buchanan, Dorector PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 6 84 Penalty for private use, $300

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