Vol. 30 No. 4

Winter 1983

CM
of Agricultural Research

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ALABAMA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION GALE A. BUCHANAN, DIRECTOR

AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA

DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS

A
iiitlixt

(,lL(liTUIIA
mallNv pci xlecti\ balsIic.

Ohs joil ,at'l c'oiitibu~tes toi the succ'(ess
flur Alabaaii,
Agricultural

Ht.lESEAHCi(21 can b)1 considered fioii ex the m~ost c'omm on beving applied tn~d ibotih tNpex of reseairch are impo)lrtanlt and(
o)1a

])r.

~

C t'rKxith

profes 1)s

',

ic~t

and( 11oth

t pes

soundI~ agicelltilial andi forestiy ar'c gixc)emphl~jlasis l)N thll.

tAlalama

lAIpeIiilncot Station. sometimes rc-

Appli'd rese~(arch.

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ill

A1.ti5ltl.

5

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recent

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of

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fpluxes of ceirtaini

ugri'ieltiiial coy--

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it

lt XX Iiit 1965. iteshits tt ni

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sh~ortslghltedl aiod irflects atbasic' mis,iild('i'taniiig andl~ lack of' p pi'('iatio o(11f rexcatrcil ori(111(d re(seachl is ileexxai'\ just to mimlitalii existilig lex (is of pro1 GALE A. BUCHANAN m11rginlg pest dti t on. NexxlIN sp)eies and the occasionlal hoss of' an eflcctix c pesticidle requnire 'oinstaiit and onlgoinig I (searh iln the b~roadI ar'ea of pest illanagc1ileit. N exs pesticides atnd crop xvarieties mu1(st b~e ex aluated onl a 'onitiniilg basis in light of current produictin sysxtems. The cx h iattion (If nlew feeds an d feed additix cx and imew tx pes (If ('lipj)el't 1s neccessarN forr their initegration injto, producetionl SNs

teilis applicable to Alabamna condhitionls. lucre is allso) i ci ciiending list of ileN I ergilig priodiuction pri'blemsl that must bec addr'xesse just to mlaintainl e\istinlg lx (Is of prolduct(in. In the past k car-, the problem) of' steim cainker of soyN lcail', p(Oanu~t stripe, ,IiId no-loo d)((11iseaxe of catfixsh joined the large lixt of' prolem~s tihat dlemanld ourl attciitioini. X c must icxl)(ild ax blest xvc can to thlese prlobllems. Recent canlcellationo(f the re(gistrationl of' ethx~m d le lbi olnide (Ell ) lbN the FIIN iroiliciltal Pruotectioii AgencN i'cdisix great deal of eiillplasis ill the xeairch for i (placceet chcimicalx and/loi prodiuctioni sNstelis if'xx are tii
prouc sovlI1xlNbeans aind peaniuts snceessfiallx, wheirue neiiatodes ar'c

WINTER 1983
A (quaritelyreport of'eseai'cI

VOL. 30, NO. 4 pulishxledl

by

statini Aubur it

llknxei'xitv.

G ).r A. Bee....................l(

irec'tor Editori

H. E. Si tI:\o NN...................I So xt:i .io xti...........Assistanit A\N Sri IN liii 10 ........ Jditor'ial TFi ia lfomm.(z........... I .Ar i

IEdito1Asxioc ite J)c'xgnel,'

It is impos)(sile toI conducit produc~itioni oi nited ireseairch withi addriessinlg the imlportanlt asp~ect (If' iillli'lI (( (fflicieny. It ix h ai'd tol aiguic xxitli tile mierits (It iincr'asedl (ffl(icll('x (, een xxhecn extira priodiuctioIn is not nleedled f'oi' the liIonrieit. Th'le resuilt of' I incirased fficienc(' is greater 1)i'IdluctiN itN fo r inpu~its expenlded. ( andt tile ultiimate 1)emil(iark is the encitii'e public at lar'ge.
(oit

Ilinalbx the piroliem (If' commoi'lditN' siii'ipiises is oIftenit ca flectiu oIf, agriciiltuiial prob(lemiis, wx athei', aInd ciii'eit imarkets i'at her tini a basic cescs o~f food, feed, and filler, especialliwxxhen conidereh'd in the xworl'dwxide ct'extt Whilt '"suripliises arc tenlpoi iiy bothersonle pi'(IliellS andf imust be cflectix clx dealt wxith tol Enisure ireasoniab~le priof its fill' (lull f'mer 5. agicultnu'al scienltists

Editorial C'ommittee: Go i) A. Ifi 1- xxss C'.F. lii~xsi JP, 01(550of_ rtit'itltut ol1 ('inc r1g . lO. A. 1)iii I F Jr,. Xssocit Ptt 'of,siit of it l t i lt it? H.El.Xlix to i :s Xx xi',t(1rtt 1',oft xso of /Iiot/-I tltotttlog/: t J.I GIxxotoixtyt Xx'sttIt J ioft xor of' I'oiult, , Science, C.L. XXsio i .o . sonjot,' IPi ,fr'x'o of' lio') I ('otoriclt' Ht''i cli (;.. I I lsiiN A.X.,jxOt I-oit'xsor of AXjiclhi ii l EctonomO'(ic an, 1of1(1 Sociologijt \V.1). 1) xxii , Ptttfi'ssoi of 1 0i cit'', (110

and be fiilk assmiiedt there is nolthling xx'iong in iimaking txxo blades (If, grass growx xx lre oly onie grcxx befor-e.WXhule miaking atcase foi' pro(diuctioIn ori applicd res(-arch, xw alsoI iiiist reco(gnize the iim porIItac (If basic reseai'c'h ill oluri lonig-tcirim e pro'igram)i of' agricultula ircsearchi xwhich ilii be the topic of' this
cliiiiii

lnformiation, 'ontainedl herc1ein' is ax ailalile to all wxithout r egard( to irace, colol, se, or nlatitonal oigin.

ili the next issue.

ON THE COVER: Simmental-Hereford cross cows are proving superior to AngusHereford crosses. (See story, page 3.)

SIMMENTAL-HEREFORD COWS SHOW BETTER MATERNAL TRAITS THAN ANGUS-HEREFORD
T.B. PATTERSON and S.P. SCHMIDT, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences LA. SMITH, H.W. GRIMES, and J.L. HOLLIMAN, Black Belt Substation

cepted the Angus-Hereford (AH) OR YEARS CATTLEMEN have the cross cow, or black baldy, as acstandard with which to compare other crossbred cows. In fact, in Alabama research, no other crossbred cow had proven superior to black baldies until a recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study at the Black Belt Substation indicated that calves from Simmental-Hereford (SH) cross cows were heavier at birth and weaning, were taller at the hips, and had a higher stocker grade than calves from AH cows. The dams for the 3-year study were heifer calves obtained by artificially inseminating (AI) high grade Hereford cows in the G.W. Jones herd, Huntsville, with semen from above average Angus and Simmental bulls. Performance-tested Angus bulls were used to clean up after AI. Over a 2-year period, the heifer calves that resulted from these matings were put into the Auburn study. Since matings were made at random, differences in characteristics contributed by the

F

Hereford cows were minimized in these crossbred AH and SH females. By the time they were 15 months old, all heifers that weighed 65% of their expected mature weight were bred to calve as 2-yearolds. This amounted to 87% of the total number of heifers. The remaining smaller heifers were held over and bred to calve first as 3-year-olds. The first week in February, excellent performance-tested Angus and Polled Hereford bulls began breeding the heifers by natural service and continued for 90 days. Data were collected for 3 years to include calves produced from 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old cows. Heifers calving first as 2-year-olds were given extra feed so they would have a better chance to breed back and calve again as 3-year-olds. The cow herd grazed dallisgrass-tall fescue-white clover pastures March 1-November 15. When pasture was inadequate during the winter, johnsongrass hay and a

protein-energy supplement were fed to meet National Research Council requireTABLE 1. REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE ments. Salt was offered free choice. During the winter, whole shelled corn Born Calving dead Weaned was provided as a creep feed for the calves, Comparison but was discontinued as spring pasture beor died came available. Within 24 hours of birth, Pct. Pct. Pct. calves were numbered and males were casBy breed of sire trated. Calves' sex, weight, hip height, and Angus (178)' ...... 92.7 5.4 87.6 Polled Hereford dam's number were also recorded. Two (172) ............. 96.5 5.4 91.3 weaning dates were selected each year so By breed of dam that the average weaning age of each group Angus x was approximately 250 days. All calves were 89.2 Hereford (176) .... 95.4 6.5 Simmental x weighed, measured, and assigned stocker Hereford (174) .... 93.7 4.3 89.7 grades at weaning. Cows weaning calves By age of dam were also weighed and measured at this 94.4 7.5 87.3 2-yr.-olds (142) .... time. In the following results, all differences 91.6 3-yr.-olds (143) .... 93.7 2.2 96.9 7.9 89.2 4-yr.-olds (65) ..... discussed are statistically significant. Total or Neither the breed of sire, breed of dam, 5.4 89.4 average .......... 94.6 nor age of dam caused any differences in 'Numbers in parenthesis indicate number of percent cows that calved, percent calves that were born dead or later died, or in percent cows exposed.
TABLE 2. PRE-WEANING TRAITS

cows that weaned a calf, table 1. All cows calved equally well as 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds. This may be attributed to excellent nutrition and management. Death loss was not excessive and in most cases, probably because of smaller birth weights, was not associated with calving difficulties. The breed of sire did not cause differences in pre-weaning traits measured, table 2. However, SH cows produced calves that were approximately 4 lb. heavier at birth and 50 lb. heavier at weaning than AH cows. In addition, at weaning, the calves from SH cows had a higher stocker grade and an average hip height 12 in. taller than those from AH cows. The breed of calf contributed no differences in performance that could not be explained by differences in breed of dam. It was expected that the three-breed cross calves by Angus bulls from SH cows would have better performance than the backcross calves by Polled Hereford bulls from the same cows. However, this did not occur.
TABLE 3. WEIGHT AND HEIGHT OF Cows WEANING CALVES

Comparison
By breed of cow

Cow weight Cow height at weaning at weaning
Lb. In. 47.6

Angus x
Hereford (158)'
..

970.6

Simmental x Hereford (156)... By age of cow 2-yr.-olds (125)...
3-yr.-olds (131)...

1,043.2 928.6
1,011.1

50.8 48.9
49.5

4-yr.-olds (58)....

1,081.0

49.2

'Numbers in parenthesis indicate number of cows tested. The SH cows were 73 lb. heavier than the AH cows, table 3. However, the extra calf weight was more than enough to offset the extra maintenance cost of the larger cow. The SH calves had an average weaning weight 49 lb. heavier than calves from AH cows. It is accepted that for each 200-lb. increase in mature cow weight, 50 extra lb. of calf are needed at weaning to offset the additional maintenance requirements for the larger cow. Therefore, less than 19 extra lb. of calf were necessary to offset the 73-lb. additional cow weight. The difference in weight due to breed of dam is not likely to increase as these cows mature. A breeding program such as the one described here should not be attempted unless excellent nutrition and management are available. 3

Comparison
By breed of sire

No. of calves
No.

Birth weight
Lb.

250-day adjusted weaning weight
Lb.

Height at weaning
In.

Stocker grade at weaning 14.1 14.2 13.9
14.3 14.1

Angus.............
Polled Hereford.....

153

157

61.6 60.7 59.2
63.1 61.2

673.4 668.5 646.2
695.7 670.9

45.2 44.7 44.2
45.7 45.0

By breed of dam Angus x Hereford... Simmental x Here-

155
155 310

ford ............... Total or average.......

113 = Choice; 14 = high Choice.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

/

I

M.K. CAUSEY and TL. IVEY, Deportment of Zoology-Entomology

it'e111) prprion oI ich coix r t\ pic ax ,ilaide, scet tale.c'lx irx (eks afteri burnin1g, hoxxtx er 1propoxrtlions of total radio locationsx for 1both dlecr illtiecl it astriong pri'eerenc'e fto the htardwxtooi pint' habitat oxver thec piine tN pe. The li'or1mir iepiesenting onlx S and 10'7( i t'pt' tix cl\ of each deers h one lange, hadl burned incomipletely in atilosic p~attern In i the pine lxpe, tileburii Naas~

t

ONl hut2.3 '5()3c'h t1IONlot it ainl terex attrt F t .c l\I I tti foext, range, S tiicd xxitilife' itiuiagt'ioent plirplixex in the Sotih. 'i'lit' oftiprcibed fitre ttn ts xx ilcililt ,taitat itai c bitti it extigitecl txaxfotiage axajilalittx palaiitailit, onutritioniti quaiit}' aiid titititi xttixleet dt'iiitx F'tew n inx ttigattt xlttx i esrr txc dealt xxit imt mtediate tnt)xttd ihottitt respoxinxses ofi xtiected xxlitlift' xstc'itx tt pxrescribetdc biuriig rangies'. xxitlit thtu ittttiitc 'itiiiiouh gcnitet tcix ,tttioxs of xlItc'ii tafiled ciccr responist t fir( hi'lax e' bxe'' reit ptted in ttitttti e liht' lexx rexearcihetrx
hialxti

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Athlough~i littei reinx ,tl ibx fire in the hat (lxx m)plilt' txp xxi 1) ts tchx tiiiatitatix e insplet titot of tine urartand xistial ttitxt'i Nationts of, ftediitg led to the belief that deti xxerec atiirace It tis sxite bx thecltarixx nod iiast ex~pos'd bi thtepriexet ifl firi t [N en ilttughl 70) aiid 69(c, rt'xfectix tI itf each dieerx' horne raitge xx e hornedl tter e xxeas nit htome irantgt shittf. I lnxx('x e thtei t xaxasidamatic chtaiigt it uxagc xxithin the' home iraingtes fion thle pitt' hadbitat ttt thte ltai~vopn clxotti v~tttxpe Deer, b'ci ixei l~th~ the itlinth xx iiti t e itcihr' idititiva loce iiairkedi andt unmtaiked, atpteared lto ,x iit t\ lxc'x the atrtax ittott xex eie afxfdected Im the fire, \\ as rco trtiti Usxing ittxt' data titti at ieast dtinitg tin firsxt xcxcl enitx ntg itch titts hoitnc ratngc', ittaitt lii c'tc'cxxeekx. Obsietx d siftx ini hahitat pfeii tct Ici tncd ax tidaitce flintg the lirte xxcit prob-t ahix ir(lted ttt ctanlges int ttood axilaliitx Ittis stickx fliexci bed firce pitiiteti_ at
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W.M. ROHLFS, III and LL HYCHE, DepartmenT t of
ii I.)ufiitai lfEfI ILb' ifdil .l ( ui coiistitiite a iittle-ktuxxI

rtmology

mosiit comon spcies alt assoctiatt'd xxitli bar k lictles. Someii spcies aie kotx ori suspecfteit to e predf Itatotrs of I ark betl sC
iesearchtrs are ilttFstcl in Cilyii( If

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No. of insects trapped

FIG. 1. Bark beetle-infested pine where colydiid beetles are typically found. * /ps spp.
A L. referendcoius

athii a'letin
six

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1

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FIG. 3. L. pusillus adult.

fixur ihpit. ciaxii palle

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ithe ofx

FIG. 4. L. pusillus larvae.

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FIG. 2. Patterns of occurrence of adults of Ips, L. pusillus, and L. referendarius at felled pine.

axthiit ltittfL pujtiitue alsf

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Afilbelma Al-Orulturul P..eper mcnif Station

fers. To simplify this system, four distinct water additions were analyzed-25, 50, 75, and 100% of the amount of water needed to raise "normal" pool levels to "full-pool" in the driest year expected. 3. Both systems above using a secondary water storage reservoir as an alternative to pumping from subsurface aquifers. 4. Oversized ponds designed to retain a HA CLONTS and S.B. WILLIAMS prescribed minimum water volume to satisfy Department of Agricultural Economics selected stocking rates. The extra water voland Rural Sociology ume is necessary to overcome seepage and evaporation losses. Water needs for each system were deterCOMMERCIAL FISH mined by water budgeting. Precipitation, PRODUCERS in Alabama utilize evaporation, seepage, and runoff were inwatershed runoff as a primary corporated into a model to estimate water water source. However, in west Alabama needs on a monthly basis. There were definite economies of size where catfish production is concentrated, among the pond units in all four models. unique soils, evaporation rates, seepage rates, and rainfall irregularities cause water Equipment necessary to supply water to volume in most ponds to shrink significantly ponds increased in capacity with pond size, but not linearly. Rather, cost per unit rose as in summer months. A 1982 fish producer survey revealed that pond size increased from 5 to 10 acres, but 86% of the producers in west Alabama did dropped significantly with 20-acre ponds. not have sufficient surface water year-round The same equipment, for the most part, to maintain preferred fish production levels. could satisfy both 10- and 20-acre pond reConsequently, in droughty summer months quirements; thus, the efficiency improved many fish producers are turning to sub- with larger ponds. The figure shows the surface water sources to maintain adequate incremental changes in fish production costs pool levels and water quality conditions. In associated with pond size. The figure also shows optimum additional addition, a growing number of producers are building diked ponds with dams on four water amounts which could be added to hill sides. Diked ponds are easier to manage and ponds from groundwater sources. Approximately 82, 84, and 89% of the difference harvest than traditional hill ponds. Alternative strategies for water use in between "normal" and "full" pool amounts areas deficient in watershed runoff are under could be added economically to the 5-, 10-, investigation by Alabama Agricultural Ex- and 20-acre ponds, respectively. Benefit-cost ratios reflecting incomes over periment Station researchers. Water-use capital, operating, and maintenance costs for models in the study include: 1. Diked ponds requiring 100% of avail- each system were used for quick comable water to be pumped from subsurface parisons of the system. The combination water source for traditional hill ponds aquifers. 2. Hill ponds utilizing watershed runoff proved to be the most profitable and efficient as a primary water source, but requiring use of resources, see table. The farmer survey in west Alabama supplementary water from subsurface aquishowed a groundwater extraction rate of approximately 26 acre-feet per day from 85 active wells used in fish production. A linear Production cost/Ib. growth trend in pond numbers and fish production indicates that by the year 2000, pro1.00ducers in the study area will require over 50 .90 acre-feet per day for fish production.

Groundwater Use

SUMMARY OF BENEFIT/COST RATIOS FOR CATFISH PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN WEST-CENTRAL ALABAMA, 1982

in Catfish Production

System

Annual gross revenue

Annual investment and

Benefit/ cost

plus salvage
Dol.

operating costs
Dol.

ratio

MOST

1. Diked pond, 100% water by pumping 5-acre unit 11,250 12,749 0.88 10-acre unit 22,500 17,279 1.30 20-acre unit 45,000 30,230 1.49 2. Hill pond, 25, 50, 75, 100% water by pumping
5-acre unit

25 pct.
50 75 100 25 pet. pct. pct. pct.

10,743
10,968 11,137 11,250 20,925 21,825 22,275 22,500 42,275

11,065
11,118 11,165 11,216 15,241 15,483 15,724 15,966

.97
.99 1.00 1.00 1.37 1.41 1.42 1.41

50 pct. 75 pct. 100 pct. 20-acre unit 25 pct. 50 75 100 3. Hill

11,250 14,020 10-acre unit 22,500 17,540 20-acre unit 45,000 28,080 4. Oversized hill or diked pond 5-acre unit 7,500 11,000 10-acre unit 15,000 15,000 20-acre unit 30,000 26,000

26,937 1.57 pct. 43,650 27,291 1.60 pct. 44,550 27,451 1.62 pct. 45,000 28,582 1.57 diked 5-acreorunit pond, 100% water by gravity flow

.80 1.28 1.60 .68 1.00 1.15

Existing aquifers in the study area are capable of supplying 4,800 acre-feet per day from depths of 10 to 1,300 ft. However, this study showed the maximum economic depth of water extraction for fish production to be about 85 ft. At this depth, approximately 10% of the aquifer volume, or about 480 acre-feet per day, are available. Based on historical water use for other purposes, the aquifer is more than adequate for area needs. Thus, the question is not one of water availability, but rather one of the economics of water withdrawal. At present, the most economical water use system is the hill pond system utilizing watershed runoff supplemented with groundwater additions to maintain pond levels at about 90% of pond capacity.

.IO-acre

pond

.70 .60 .50 Average . market .40 - price 5-acre pond
' !!

.20 .10-

20-acre pond,4 25 50 75 Percent of water added to raise normal dry-year
pool to full pool

84 100

6

SAlabama Agricultural Exp
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nt Station

stock in spring, grow out during summer, and harvest in fall. But harvesting according to this schedule produces a seasonal glut in the fall, thereby creating marketing problems. Nevertheless, this was the common production and marketing schedule followed when Alabama's catfish industry was developing in the 1950's and 1960's. The best way for a catfish processing plant to be profitable is to operate year-round at capacity, with a steady supply of catfish. Processors several years ago began to offer higher prices during winter, spring, and summer, compared to fall, to obtain steadier supplies. The processors' intention was to pay catfish farmers to postpone harvesting in the fall and hold the catfish into the slowgrowth winter period for harvest during spring and summer. Spreading harvesting over a 12-month or 3-month period or harvesting in 1 month only yielded varying degrees of profitability in an Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study done on a west Alabama catfish farm. The study compared the long-term profitability of this middle-sized operation among three harvest strategies: Strategy 1: Partial harvesting every month with nets (topping). Strategy 2: Harvesting only during September, October, and November (figured on basis of same annual weight offish as actually harvested in Strategy 1). Stategy 3: Harvesting only in October (same annual weight). The Texas A&M University Aquaculture Budget Simulator was used to project the economic performance of the farm over a 10-year planning horizon. Primary data were collected for the 12-month period ending June 1982, using a questionnaire which was administered during interviews with the farm manager. The sample farm contained over 200 pond surface acres and produced both fingerlings and market-size catfish. The net worths of the farm at the end of year 10 under the three harvest stategies are illustrated in the table. Harvest strategy l's net worth of $1,376,329 in year 10 was the largest of the three net worths. Harvest strategy 2's year 10 net worth of $972,949 was second, while strategy 3 ranked third with 10-year net worth of $833,024. The three, 10-year net worths translate into annual average equity (net worth) growth rates of 48.2%, 31.1%, and 25.2% for harvest strategies 1, 2, and 3, respectively. These equity (net worth) calculations were based on (1) original owner's equity of $236,589 for all three harvest strategies, and (2) gross revenue for each year before taxes with production costs subtracted. Annual growth rates are also given in the table. The effects of different harvest timing Alabama Agricultural Experiment Static

BECAUSE

when water temperature falls below CATFISH stop growing 54 ° , the easiest way to grow them is to

Alternative Marketing Systems Offer Greater Catfish Profits
DS. HUNT and G.M. SULLIVAN Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology strategies on the cash flow of the sample farm were as follows: Harvest strategy 1 showed the fewest negative cash flow months with an annual total of four (June-September). Harvest strategy 2 yielded double that number with negative cash flow all months except February, September, October, and November. Harvest strategy 3 (100% harvest in October) showed the most negative cash outflow months with a total of 10 (all months except February and October). Due to the different seasonal patterns of stocking and harvesting, the flow pattern of farm cash receipts seldom matches the flow of cash expenses. Farmers who can coordinate these income and expense flows to cancel each other out as much as possible can then operate with less short-term borrowing and liquid (cash) reserves. The number of negative net cash flow months during a 12-month period shows how much income and cost cash flows cancel each other out. Harvest strategy 1 offered the fewest negative net cash flow months. Harvest strategy 3 (October) is believed to represent the traditional harvest pattern dictated by the natural biological catfish growing season. Harvest strategy 2 (September, October, and November) is believed to typify the harvest schedule pursued by a farmer who is beginning to control his harvest to exploit seasonal catfish prices. Harvest strategy 1, the existing schedule of topping the growout ponds every month, is believed to represent the choice of a catfish farm manager who is acutely aware of the extra income he can earn by departing from tradition to take advantage of seasonal prices. This research marked the first use of a computer simulation model to compare different marketing situations. In this case, the marketing situations took the form of production management (i.e. harvest timing). The whole area of seasonal prices offered by processors gives the catfish farmer a chance to improve his own marketing position, and thus his own long-term financial position, by bringing his catfish to market when they will bring the best possible price. Assuming any management practice that increases profits also increases growth potential, then harvest strategy 1 offered more opportunities for financial growth of the catfish farm than strategies 2 and 3. Results suggest that such production planning by catfish farmers can be profitable, perhaps more so than the high-density fish stocking and the large economies of scale that have dominated the catfish industry during its recent years of rapid expansion.

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF ECONOMIC GROWTH MEASURES FOR THREE HARVEST STRATEGIES FOR A WEST ALABAMA CATFISH FARM OVER 10 YEARS, 1982-91 Harvest strategy 2--harvest Measurement 1-harvest 3-harvest October September,

all months $1,376,329 48.2% 4

October, November $972,949 31.1% 8

only only

Year 10 net worth (owner's equity) ........ Annual rate of equity growth (average) .....

Number of negative net cash flow months ..

$833,024 25.2% 10

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PPLICATION of a protective fungicide at 2- or 3-week intervals has been the prescribed method of controlling pecan scab. When the growing season is relatively dry, scab development may be light and the full spray schedule may not be needed. Nevertheless, protective fungicides must be applied on a regular schedule to obtain effective scab control. Another approach to disease control is by use of a fungicide after spores that cause scab have been dispersed and infection has occurred. However, this system has not been tested on pecans. A new product now under test at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Stationpropiconazole (Tilt®)-shows promise as an after-infection treatment for control of scab. Although not registered for use on pecans, propiconazole may prove to be what pecan growers need. The Experiment Station study was designed to define the time when fungicide treatment is effective following infection. Three-year-old Schley trees growing in 3-gal. pails were used in the study. Conidia

100% relative humidity for 12 hours for infection to occur. Time of inoculation was used as time zero for subsequent fungicidal applications. The fourth compound leaf (the oldest) from the top of the shoot of each tree was covered with a plastic bag and sealed around the rachis. This prevented any fungicide from reaching the leaflets. The three younger compound leaves were sprayed with propiconazole at 48, 96, 144, or 192 hours (2, 4, 6, or 8 days) after inoculation. Six
trees were used for each incubation time; control trees were sprayed with sterile tap water. Propiconazole applications were sprayed to runoff using a solution containing 0.02 oz. of propiconazole per quart of water. Subsequently, the trees were held for 30 days in the greenhouse and C. caryigenum lesions on each leaflet were counted. Excellent control of the scab fungus was achieved by propiconazole treatment. This is evident by comparing the number of lesions on check leaves and on treated leaves, given in the table. Ratings given untreated leaves indicate severity of scab development. Lesion counts from the fourth leaf, which was enclosed in a plastic bag to prevent fungicide reaching it, indicate the amount of scab that could have occurred without the fungicide.

Leaves treated with propiconazole 2 days
after inoculation were free of disease symptoms. These were given ratings of 6. Those

treated 4 days after inoculation had a leaf

fleck that was discernible only with a stereomicroscope. If treated 6 or 8 days after inoculation, there was a leaf spot or fleck that could be clearly seen. These were rated 7. Pecan leaflets treated with propiconazole or water were surface sterilized in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 5 minutes, rinsed six times with sterile water, and embedded
in potato dextrose agar in petri dishes. Leaf-

lets were incubated for 8 days at 74F, at which time small black colonies of C. caryigenum growing from the leaves were recorded. Sporulation of C. caryigenum was verified after 6 weeks. The curative activity of propiconazole was absolute when treatment was made within 2
days after inoculation. There was neither micro- nor macroscopic evidence of infection. When treatment was delayed 4 days after

of Cladosporium caryigenum, which causes
scab, were washed from scabby pecan leaves and a uniform concentration sprayed on the Schley pecan leaves. Inoculated trees were 0 placed in a chamber programmed to 76 F and

inoculation, the formation of flecks was approximately 50% of the untreated check.
Those lesions, however, could be seen only with the aid of a stereomicroscope. Culture of leaves treated 4 days after inoculation failed to produce colonies. Delaying treatment 6 or 8 days after inoculation resulted in the appearance of a shiny, dark brown spot or fleck on the leaf, apparently as a result of C. caryigenum necrosis. Based on the number of lesions on unsprayed check leaves, only 3% of the infections survived when treatment was made 6 days after inoculation, and 23% survived when treatment was delayed 8 days. Based on the results reported, use of propiconazole should offer growers the option of treating for pecan scab after trees have been exposed to the fungus that causes the disease. Thus, more effective disease management procedures should be possible when propiconazole is registered for use on pecans.

CONTROL OF CLADOSPORIUM CARYIGENUM BY PROPICONAZOLE APPLIED 2-8 DAYS AFTER INOCULATION

Treatment of inoculated leaf' Covered ..........
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BOSTON FERN
Effects of Slow-release and Liquid Fertilizers on Growth and Post-productionPerformance
C.H, GILLIAM, Department of Horticulture R.L. SHUMACK, Cooperative Extension Service C.E. EVANS, Department of Agronomy and Soils

in the medium, since none was applied dur-

°

ANY COMMERCIAL foliage plant producers use liquid fertilizers in their production programs. Since liquid fertilizers last only a short time in growing media, there has been concern about whether quality of plants can be maintained while plants are awaiting sale in retail outlets. But this problem did not show up in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research with liquid and slow-release fertilizers. Ferns that had been produced under liquid fertilization maintained their green color for 6 weeks in low-light conditions without additional fertilizer applications. Previous research had shown the benefits of acclimatizing foliage plants before they enter the interior environment. Plants grown under low-light levels during acclimatization reportedly require less fertilizer. Thus, holding ferns in low-light conditions prior to retail sales would potentially benefit both the garden center operator and the
consumer.

M

ethylene house with maximum illuminance of about 40 kilolux (klx). Temperatures ranged from 64 to 75°F. At the end of 16 weeks, half of the ferns were moved to an interior environment, while the others were left in the greenhouse. Interior lighting was provided by CoolWhite 40W fluorescent lamps plus natural light through windows. No fertilizer was applied to the control treatment in either environment after January 13. Commercial production. The greatest fern growth during the 16-week normal production period occurred with either the
liquid feed program or incorporation of Os-

ing the holding period. The visual condition of the ferns at the end of the two holding periods was determined by the measurements of color difference. At the beginning of the holding period, frond color was similar among all treatments with the exception of fronds grown with 1.5 lb. N per cu. yd. of SREF, which were a lighter green. At the end of the period, all ferns in the greenhouse appeared lighter compared to their color at the beginning of the holding period, although statistical comparisons were not made. However, ferns held in the interior environment appeared greener, including the liquid control treatment which had no added fertilizer during those 6 weeks. These results have several practical implications. Many retail garden centers have greenhouses to hold and maintain foliage plants prior to sale. Data indicate that ferns actually improve in color under low-light conditions, even when no liquid fertilizer is added, tending to dispute the notion that slow-release fertilizers are superior to liquid fertilizers in maintaining green color following the production period. Ferns previously on the liquid feed program, which
were held for 6 weeks with no fertilization,

The objectives of the Alabama Experiment Station study were to determine the effects of a liquid fertilization program and two slow-release fertilizers on Compacta Boston fern. Growth, foliar nutrient content during production, and post-production quality under greenhouse and interior lowlight conditions were measured. Boston Compacta fern liners were potted on September 23, 1981, in 6-in. pots in a medium of 1 peat:1 perlite (by volume), amended with 2 lb. per cu. yd. of gypsum. Seven fertilizer treatments were compared. An experimental, sulfur-coated, slowrelease encapsulated fertilizer (SREF) 20-4-10 and Osmocote 19-6-10 were compared at three rates: 1.5, 3.0, and 6.0 lb. nitrogen (N) per cu. yd. To obtain the three N rates, Osmocote was added to the medium at 8, 16, and 32 lb. of product per cu. yd., while SREF was added at 7.5, 15, and 36 lb. per cu. yd. A control treatment of liquid fertilization with 20-2-20 was applied at 150 p.p.m. N twice weekly. Ferns were grown in a double-layer, poly-

mocote (3 lb. N per cu. yd.), see table. With Osmocote there was no difference in fern dry weight when comparing the higher slowrelease N rates. Simulated holding conditions. Little growth occurred on the ferns moved to the low-light conditions. With one exception, fern dry weight taken after 6 weeks in the interior environment was within 5% of the dry-weight data taken 6 weeks earlier. In contrast, ferns held in the greenhouse environment had dry-weight increases of 20% or more. Ferns grown with the liquid program increased 28% in dry weight, even though no fertilizer was applied during the 6-week holding period. These data indicate that fern growth occurred from stored N or N retained

were as green as any fern grown with slowrelease fertilizers, regardless of the holding treatment. Thus, it may not be necessary to fertilize ferns held under low-light conditions for at least 6 weeks after commercial production is finished. Foliar N data further support the fact that ferns grown with liquid fertilization did not become yellow or chlorotic, see table. When sampled at the end of the commercial production period, ferns grown with liquid fertilizer had foliar N content similar to or higher than all other treatments, whether in the greenhouse or in the interior environment. These results demonstrate that retail outlets may best handle ferns by holding them in a low-light environment without additional fertilization, regardless of the type of fertilizer used during commercial production.

EFFECTS OF ONE LIQUID AND Two SLOW-RELEASE FERTILIZERS ON COMPACTA BOSTON FERN DRY WEIGHT AND FOLIAR ANALYSIS

Treatment lb. N/cu. yd. SREF 1 24-4-10 1.5 .................. Osmocote 19-6-10 1.5 .................. 3.0................... 6.0................... Liquid fertilizer 20-2-20 150 p.p.m. N .........
2

Dry wt. Jan. 16 Oz. 1.81 Feb. 25 Oz. 2.31 Feb. 252 Oz. 1.88 Nov. 18 Pct. 2.6

Nitrogen Jan. 16 Pct. 1.5 Feb. 25 Pct. 1.6 Feb. 252 Pct. 1.8

2.16 2.49 2.09 .2.58

2.60 3.38 3.13 3.59

2.06 2.48 2.37 2.63

3.2 3.3 3.2 3.0

2.2 2.5 2.6 2.9

1.9 2.1 2.2 2.4

2.5 3.0 3.1 3.3

'An experimental slow-release encapsulated fertilizer. Ferns were held in an interior environment January 16-February 25, 1982. All other samples were collected from ferns grown in the greenhouse.

12

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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Relationship Between Dietary Zinc and Polyunsaturated Fat

AS

M.C. CRAIG-SCHMIDT, R.R. GATES, and SA. FAIRCLOTH, Department of Home Economics Research
KNOWLEDGE about individual

experimental period is shown in the accompanying figure. Animals fed a zinc-deficient diet ate less food which was reflected in reduced weight gain. The weight gain of the pair-fed animals was intermediate between the deficient and the control groups. At the end of the 5-week experimental period, livers and lungs were removed, and the ability of each organ to produce prostaglandins was determined. If zinc is necessary in prostaglandin biosynthesis, then one would expect the ability of various organs to produce prostaglandins to be lowered in zinc-deficient animals. In this experiment it was found, however, that prostaglandin levels were not significantly different between zinc-

adequate and zinc-deficient animals except for prostaglandin E in lung tissue, see table. In this instance, prostaglandin E was found to be increased, not decreased as expected. When results from the pair-fed group were compared to the control group, there were no differences in prostaglandin production by lung tissue. However, the livers of the animals which were pair-fed exhibited a decrease in prostaglandin production. Restricting food intake appears to affect prostaglandin production in the liver but not in the lung. It was concluded from this experiment that zinc-deficient animals did not have decreased levels of prostaglandins as some investigators had proposed.

EFFECT OF ZINC DEFICIENCY ON PROSTAGLANDIN PRODUCTION BY INCUBATED TISSUES'

nutrients has increased, nutritional scientists have expressed more interest in how the function of one nutrient is related to other components in the diet. For example, human nutrition researchers with the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station are studying the relationship between zinc, a mineral that is an essential component of the diet, and a component of polyunsaturated fat called essential fatty acids. If animals are fed a diet deficient in zinc, they exhibit some of the same symptoms that are seen when the diet is deficient in essential fatty acids. One of the reasons this type of fat is necessary in the diet is that it serves in the body as a building block for a group of hormone-like compounds called prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are involved in the proper function and regulation of many bodily processes including reproduction. Aspirin inhibits the formation of prostaglandins in the body. When researchers noticed that prolonged pregnancy, difficult delivery, and lowered blood pressure were symptoms common to pregnant rats either fed zinc-deficient diets or treated with toxic doses of aspirin, a relationship between zinc and prostaglandin formation was proposed. Thus, the purpose of the reported experiment was to see how prostaglandin production in two organs of the body was affected by zinc deficiency. Fifteen male albino rats were randomly divided into three groups. One group was fed a diet complete in all nutrients. The second group was fed a diet deficient in zinc. Zinc-deficient animals are known to have decreased food intake. Therefore, to distinguish between effects caused by zinc deficiency and those caused by depressed appetite, a third group was pair-fed, meaning that these animals were fed the complete diet in the amounts consumed by the deficient group. Weight gain for each group during the

Dietary treatment

Prostaglandin E Liver tissue Lung tissue
ng/g 14.5 + 3.0 13.2 + 2.1 7.5 + 1.5

Prostaglandin F2a Liver tissue Lung tissue
ng/g 42.2 + 5.6 40.3 3.8 39.2 ± 5.8 ng/g 42.1 + 9.0 8.5 51.8 21.7 + 2.3

ng/g 7.7 + 1.3 Zn-adequate .... 12.7 +1.5 Zn- deficient .... Pair-fed.........6.6 -- 0.6

'Values are mean + standard error of the mean. Growth curves of experimental animals.

14

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

areas are safe and secure from crime, N THE MINDS of most people, rural at least in comparison with metropolitan areas. The infrequent instances of violent crimes, occasional vandalism, and thefts of livestock and crops have never seemed to compare with the amount of crime occurring in cities. The reported crime statistics have tended to support this belief. But times are changing. Statistical information from a variety of sources indicates that crime is becoming an increasing problem in rural areas. The F.B.I.'s Uniform Crime Reports, based on information filed by state investigative agencies, show an upward trend in total crime rates for the rural United States and the rural South. Such crime rates are based on seven major criminal offenses: murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and vehicle theft. The first four crimes are considered "violent" and the last three "property" crimes. Between 1960 and 1980, the total crime rate for the rural United States increased by nearly 450%. The rate of increase for the rural South was somewhat less at 385%. Rural crime rates now equal or exceed the rates for metropolitan areas that so alarmed the nation in the mid-1960's. By 1980, the rural crime rate for the United States was 2,290 per 100,000 people and 2,006 for the rural South. Alabama enjoys one of the lower crime rates in the region. Comparisons among the 13 Southern States for 1981 show that rural crime rates for the State are next to the lowest at 1,302. Only Mississippi reported fewer. However, Alabama's small cities (less than 50,000 population) ranked 9th in crime rate for the region and metropolitan areas with populations of 50,000 or more ranked 7th. Unfortunately, Alabama's crime rate is increasing for both rural areas and small towns. The increase between 1960 and 1980 was 277% for rural areas, but 624% for small cities, most of which are located in nonmetropolitan counties. Rural crime rates for Alabama reveal that the vast majority of crime is against property-87% in 1980. Over the 20-year period from 1960 to 1980, rural crime rates for property crimes increased by 377% while violent crimes against persons increased only 20%. The number of rural property and violent crimes in each Alabama county is recorded on the map. The rates include all crimes reported to county sheriffs and exclude those reported to police in incorporated places. These data do not reflect the considerable fluctuation in the number of crimes that occur each year in small geopolitical units. Such fluctuation is masked when data are aggregated on a state or national basis. County data collected by the Alabama Criminal Justice Information Center reveal

that Houston County had the highest rural property crime rate, 3,086 crimes per 100,000 population, followed closely by Jefferson with 2,935 and Greene with 2,915. The fewest property crimes were reported in rural areas of Bibb, Bullock, Coffee, Marion, and Washington counties, with rates below 200. Violent crime rates provide a somewhat different ranking of counties. Wilcox reported the highest rate, 615 per 100,000 population, followed by Houston, Jefferson, Geneva, and Russell counties, all with rural rates above 400. No violent crimes were reported in 1981 for rural areas of Bibb, Cherokee, Coffee, Macon, and Winston counties. A new project at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station will take up the issue of crime in rural areas throughout the State.

Little information currently exists about who the victims of rural crime are, the practices rural people use in protecting themselves from being victimized, and the extent and cost of unreported rural crime. Lacking such information, it is difficult to develop programs that will effectively reduce crime and preserve the valued rural image of security and safety. More law enforcement personnel alone will not stem the rural property crime trend, although they are needed in many areas. Sound programs of prevention, based on citizen involvement, provide the best prospects for effective action. This new research will obtain basic information from rural people about their experiences as victims of rural crime, particularly those involving theft and destruction of farm, residential, business, and public properties.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

t

15

D.L. KUHLERS and S.B. JUNGST, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences

litter size horn iilise, litter size aline at 35 (lass, litter surskill rate at :35 (lass of those horn aline, litter sleights at birth, and litter g~ilts or g~ilts set'i'ttd fot eitheur loiX or high sseiglits at :35 class. 13reccling sscights of sows selected for rapid grossth sere sigrtific"antls hcasicr than Stationi Xtiltl was~ done to dtettminit st t brccdint, sleights of, those fi-onr the reinaining three selection lines, which did not differ hapX lulXt n Xt'it'iltjtiliand 1)1tttitI hrits siguificantl\ from each other, see tahle. Although the sows selec"tccl fin high hacklat hacl loser fiu-roscirig rates, the cliflcrcnce sits sIllt \tsiloreletlion Iis(( practcd foth or not significiurt. agi) st grow1til atttor biii akfaitltt ti Xs Litter size at birth (lid not differ significantls among the four lines, although the loss backfat line Sows farrosscd approsinuttel one pig per litter less. I losseccr. at :35 'T',s to 1toa1its are ieertl use ini thit39 days, the loss backfat gilts hurl significantly snutller litters than dicl the rapid or sloss tr lt aittt hit( Is ls eit ab httti ti i ii grossth line gilts. 'I'he loss backfat line hacl sotins ofit~ Ath Iuoickt nd it XXnh- 0.2 ibt I. pigs per litter less than the sloss grossth line. This is also seen in surds al rates, sclric h hiortlo (1.3' asonic backfa50 tXiknssstttI i)t score losscst in the loss backfat line and highest in the Sloss growth line. This implies that B 1ti// i i ) tiC/i ) slig .Xt Th s bors i/ ait
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selection for loss backfat thickness nuts he detrinulntal to soss produc"tisits , sshile selccfor doss gross tli mils promote hotter soss productis itv . Litter ssrights at birth did not cliflcr significantlc anumg the selection lines. llossesrr, at :35 (lass, the rapid itnd Sloss grossth line litters sere approsinuttek 3, lb. hcasier than the loss backfat line litters. The results fotmcl in this sthub mils be salicl orals for the one generation of selection practiced. Ilosscser, these results indicate that genetically smaller soscs nras be desirable under some circumstances, prosided this snudl size is not due to disease conditiori

tions.

The sss inc industrs of the f ittn c nuts utilize small, sloss-grossing sons bred to large, rapid-grossing boars to produce urn ket hogs more efficicntk because foal required for maintenance should be less than for larger. later-maturinIg sons. Additional stork needs to be clone to (ley clop it better undershuiding ofthe relationships arum, the reprocluctise. -rossth, and carcass traits.

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diets produced greater numbers of spermatozoa per ejaculate than males provided the 16 and 18% protein diets, though the differences were not statistically significant. A larger percentage of the males fed the 12 and 14% protein diets came into semen production before those given the higher protein diets, table 1. The males maintained similar body weights on treatment diets until the latter weeks of the study. At the end of the experiment, birds on the 14% diet were the heaviest group and had the highest total testis weight per bird, table 2. The males on the 12, 16, and 18% protein diets all had similar body weights and total testis weights per bird. No explanation can be offered for these differences in the 14% group. The average daily semen production in the last week, like the previous weeks, was highest for males in the 12 and 14% protein groups, and lowest in the males fed the 16% protein diet. Males given the 12% protein diet appeared to be more efficient producers of semen with a ratio of 2.99 billion spermatozoa per oz. of testis. Generally, the broiler breeder males fed the lower protein diets produced more semen than those fed the higher protein diets. Data from this preliminary study are not conclusive, but agree with similar investigations in turkeys. More research must be conducted in this area to determine the optimum protein levels for the efficient reproduction of broiler breeder males, as well as other dietary and environmental needs.

TABLE 1. PERCENTAGE OF MALES IN PRODUCTION

Percent

protein
diet

In production by weeks of age 28 Pct. 100 67 30 44 29 Pct. 90 56 40 44 30 Pct. 80 67 44 40 31 Pct. 78 75 50 56

report that 30% of broiler breeder PRODUCERS currently male chickens produce insufficient amounts of semen for artificial insemination. These low semen producers increase costs and reduce efficiency in the poultry industry. Existing management systems are not stimulating the males to reach maximum reproductive capabilities. As a matter of necessity, most breeder males are being grown and managed like breeder hens, whose requirements for optimum egg production differ from the breeder males' requirements to maximize semen production. The objective of this Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study was to evaluate the protein requirements of breeder males necessary to maximize reproductive capabilities. Approximately 100 males were grown from 1 to 4 weeks on a commerical starter ration. At 29 days of age, 25 males were randomly assigned to either a 12, 14,

POULTRY

16, or 18% protein diet, which was fed for the remainder of the 52-week study. The 16% protein diet, commonly used by industry, served as the control. Ten males were chosen from each of the treatment groups at 24 weeks and placed in 12 x 18 in. cages. Semen was collected by the abdominal massage method and the following data recorded: semen volume, visual score, sperm cell counts, packed cell volume, and percentage in production. Semen samples were collected weekly during the early and middle production periods and a model ZB Coulter Counter was used to determine sperm cell numbers. During the late production period, semen samples were collected five times weekly and a photometer was used for the sperm cell counts. Semen production, measured in billions of cells per ejaculate, was monitored over the 27- to 52-week period. Throughout this time, males given the 12 and 14% protein

27 Pct. 12.......... 90 14.......... 56 40 16.......... 33 18..........

TABLE 2. BODY WEIGHT, TESTIS WEIGHT, AND SEMEN PRODUCTION AT 52 WEEKS

Results by percent

Measurement 12

protein diet 16 14

18

Av. body wt., lb.............. 8.97 9.48 8.54 Total testis wt., oz ........ 1.08 1.38 1.18 Daily semen prod., billion sperm/ 3.23 2.77 1.02 ejaculate ....... Daily semen prod., billion sperm! .86 2.99 2.01 oz. testis .......

8.90 1.05 1.80 1.71

18

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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