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ON THE COVER. Unveiling of a bronze marker commemorating the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station was a highlight of the centennial celebration, held February 23. 1983, at Auburn University.

INCREASED VOLUME of all agricultural real estate lending in recent years has placed pressure on lenders to effectively evaluate all loans so total loan loss is held to a minimum. Borrowers, as well as financial institutions, benefit if the volume of bad loans is reduced. If loans are carefully evaluated, then borrowers are less likely to get so deeply in debt that they might encounter problems in meeting repayment obligations. Also, if few bad loans are made, borrowing costs to cover loan loss rates are minimized for all borrowers. Statistical procedures are available which assist in the evaluation of risk associated with a particular loan. Discriminant analysis may be used to determine the characteristics of individual borrowers that are most important in predicting whether the borrower should be classified as either a good or bad credit risk. To analyze characteristics of real estate borrowers in the Fifth Farm Credit District (Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi), data were collected from the Federal Land Bank of New Orleans by Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station researchers. Data were used from the Federal Land Bank, an organization that is the primary real estate lender in agriculture, see figure. Data provided for the analysis included over 22,000 loans made during the 5-year period from 1974 to 1978. Data were coded by personnel at the Federal Land Bank so no names or other information that might reveal the identity of a particular borrower were given. A 10% sample was drawn from the data for use in the statistical model. Data from the loan accounts contained several characteristics concerning both the borrower and the loan. Specific variables found in the data were: age of borrower; loan amount; total loan commitment; appraisal value of security; house value; building value; acres operated; acres owned; gross and net agricultural income; nonagricultural income; living expenses; annual debt service; current, intermediate, and fixed assets; and current, intermediate, and long-term debt. In addition, several financial variables and ratios were constructed from the data. Also, values were included which were calculated by Federal Land Bank personnel to represent difficult to quantify factors such as repayment ability and the man factor which is designed to show moral character. repayment history, and managerial ability. These variables were analyzed using discriminant analysis to determine which were the most significant in determining whether a loan would be classified as acceptable (requiring little, if any, repayment supervision) or problem. Of all variables considered, two appeared to possess significant discriminating power to distinguish between good and bad loans. These variables were: total

An Objective Evaluation of Federal Land Bank Borrowers
WILLIAM E. HARDY, JR., and JAMES E.PATTERSON, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology

Pistribution of farm real estate debt by lending source, 1982.

dition, 68% of the loans in a separate test sample were classified correctly. Examples may be used to illustrate the use net worth (X2 ). As expected, both variables had higher of the credit scoring technique. Borrower 1 values for problem loans than for acceptable has total debt of $200,000, total assets of loans. The discriminant equation, SCORE $410,000, net worth of $210,000, and loan = -1.9554+ 0.0332X 1 + 0.4217X2 , which commitment of $20,000. The score for this was derived from the data, indicates that as borrower would be -0.295. Since this value is the levels of total debt and loan commitment below 0.32, the borrower would be classified increase relative to total assets and net as a good loan risk. Another borrower may worth, respectively, the likelihood of a loan have total debt of $820,000, total assets of being bad increases. $1,430,000, net worth of $600,000, and loan If the errors of misclassifying any problem commitment of $800,000. Since the score for loan as acceptable and an acceptable loan as this borrower, 0.533, is above the cut-off problematic were considered to be of equal value, he would be classified in the problem severity, then the cut-off score for predicting loan category. Research results presented above should whether a loan would be good or bad would be 0.32. If the calculated score fell above be useful to both lenders and borrowers. The 0.32, then past loan experience and charac- discriminant equation will aid in deterteristics of loans and borrowers would indi- mining whether credit should be granted. cate that problems in repayment might be Lender and borrower should remember, expected. Scores below this level would however, that nothing can replace the evalupoint to the likelihood of a good loan with ation made by an experienced analyst. The little, if any, repayment difficulties. Using credit evaluation given in this report merely this cut-off score, 71% of the loans in the gives additional objective information which sample were classified correctly. In ad- should help the analyst do a better job.
debt multiplied by 100 and divided by total assets (X1 ), and loan commitment divided by

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

FIG. 2. Aspirating adult Culicoides from deer.

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ho\ ilw scowli I"ool t1w 1, oiW(I Stith's f6l. Icill oI this ilisect-borlic \irus Iwill" ilitro(ItIcc(I

to otlicr

bliletow"lle-li-cc collntrici.

)utbrcaks of licinort lim"ic (liscitse ill Mlite-titilc(I (Iccr llil\c bccll klocilinclitc(I ill ill Icast one solitlwasteril (Icer Ile](] c\cr\
will- sill(v 1971. 'I'lic last Illiljor olltbl-cak (lecr fit 156 comitics 1 I:CCI . 1,;,C(Isolltheiistcril States SIIm,\c(I clillicill I el", it ill 1980 Micii c\ i(Ico(v of this (liscilse. I )ccr cilli also I)('collic ildCoc(I \%ith bluctolwile xillis I-(sulting ill pathological signs ill(listillallishilblc fi-olli

k-

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47

LO

A'k

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and Hemnorrhagic Disc
G.R. MULLEN and M.E. HAYES, Department of Zoology-Entort )OlOgy

To (Ictcrillilic thc spccics ofbitill", loi(h"c's ill\ol\(,(l Ili thc trifil sill ission of t1wse Wo \11-11ses ill Alaballia, rescal-cliel-s of the Alil\Jwri ballia A("liclilturill V, locilt Station ha\c bccll Stll(l\ ilw (:Fill( oidc.s spl). \\ hich attack 'IttIc ill)(I \\ llitc-titilc(l (Iccl . Incooperation ith the Allbill-11 I'Ili% cl-sit\ chool of ctcrillal\ Mc(licilic illi(I thc \\ il(llifc plogritill itt clitolliologists ficl(l collectc(I bitill" I-oill cattIc ill)(I (Iccr throm"holit thc 19117 Drop-t\pc closilre hitps 2 sciflsoll. collstructc(I to capture Illi(Igcs attracte(I to
cattle. figore 1. VolIo\\in,,, 15-minute exposiire 1-Icrio(Is, 4 \ (I x 9-It. Sarim-cloth ciigcs werc lo\\cl c(I \ fit it \\ inch all(I plille\ ".\stclil I)\(,]' Holstein bulls restritille(I ill it]) opcil

A \iON(

'H Ii NSECT S

XXwhih

attack'
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iltions ill Mlich asske ilitcl-flal
ha\ c rc\ citlc(l irlis lt'li lictoogtic %

I);Ist Ilre iIII(I bol Ile] ing \\ oo(Ilill)(1. Collectors t1wo clitcrc(l flolll b(.11cifth the trifl) to i1spilatc Off, Ilics its t1w\ reste(l oil the illsi(Ic of, t1w ciulc aftcr li-c(lilig oil the host. Spcci(hicctl\ from cilpti\c locos \\(11-c
(Iccr, I'Worc 2. CollcHimis \\crc illa(lu 110111

iii

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tli(. State X\ith ill sollw licr(Is I to this \illls. )it littic or ]to
CIA C its IIII(Icto tralisillissioll

cattle pf iiiiiii I]\ ill (lusk an(I lf-oin (Icer fit the hell bitillt actio, It\ fiff cal I\ illoroili" hoill citch ]lost group \%as highest. Tllirtccil Cldicoidcs spl). \\elc collectc(l fi-olit cattIc. 'I'lic follf, Illost pi-c\illclit species
were al)(I C. C. ;tcffifilsan"llivil",a, C. pal-aclisis, collipi-IsIlig C. ob.solctils, Iwark ST/

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of the total specinicos collcoc(l. Also attackIng cattlc throll'i'llout tlic ',tll(l\ pclio(l floill \1ii\ to October were C. (Ivbitipalpi , C. 1(11-1 .I1)('1111is, itli(I C . tcn 1I,,tI1.v. 'I'lic sallic Jwcics \\(,le also coloillool , collccw(l fiolll \ (lecr, fil(licatilig tli(-\ lva(lik fic(l oil both ]lost ("rollps. Cflficoidc (hbilipalpis\\as b\ (ill t1w pi-c(lominant spccics takcii oil (leer, i-cprescoting 98(/ of thc nearly 5,000 speciHollis clollcc7c(l 1-oill (Iccr. Bicsco:l off tlicir host-f-c(lill 1wha\ ior, of t1wse sjwcics repic.sents it potential \cctor of BT all(I 1,1111) \illises ill Alabama. Filithel lescill-C-11 is ctil-]-(,Iltl\ beillo, con(Illctc(l to (leterillille which of tIlcm, spccics call actoall , support tll(- (lewlopillent of' \ thesc \il-liscs iIII(I thlis scr\c its Ilatill-al \cctors of' thesc (Iiscasc agents.

FIG. 1. Restrained Holstein bu if Dfneath trap.

ltifabanla Al-i-icultut-at ExpcOnictit Station

DISE ASE is
miost seriu

it mnajor f'actor limiting produc tioin of xx tt liii loi i in Alabamia. Gumm1y stei bl)1ight anIId itnlthii eoxe are twxo of' thie
dOIX(iseases.

Sex ve

crop

ose

and reduced yields of iielons haxve restlted 0111il th glIIIlin\ stelin blliht anld anl tin actoxe inl ce rtai n fields xin Ali aama. Alth 00 gi the dam lage xeced to be) i nrc i widesprea inl the C; o f Coast ar ea, fie dd n reportsx of'ianiage inl central and noirth Alalilillil ]LI\(, occui I ed. Althi)ogh xatt ixfaetnry co itrol of' golnlnxl stem bli gilt 11ad itill 11(1li IIliil(ab liii 111 plixlild wXitli the propelr applicatlonl of' organlic fiiiigicic (1u11ing lullrmal XX eather ci.dtionsX tIll control measure is effectixve duinig pleriods (If iigli Immiiditx anl jaitifill. iitieritiorec tihe three leadinlg co~ltlx ii
SX ect, are not Ieistanlt tio glililIX 01 tiradci) xc stinl

ibiigiht and race 2

Thie di colX cI tihat Ce rtain pl tant illtro) duitons (PI 189225 and P~I 271778) wXere rexixtalit to gllilllnx xtemil light andi race 2 Alitlitiilcliosi led toi tile iliitiatioli ofll
b~reedling fhlli Oil 197ff1 to Xwterillol deX clop) mu litiple dlisiaxe irexixtant blleedinig 111e lities liii) lrdue higil Xie li of excelle iI

(iialitx F11"nit. 1x\\ of'iltihexe liniex, Xl.1 anid Al 3, are iimrrentlx ibeing releaxed axs AU-. juilan111t alld AU.- Producer, rexfletix elx. Al. jubilant is anl inbr ed line( ii nin the cross iilbilce x P. 1. 2717>8 Al i-l oditcer is all inbdllt(, e 11)11 tile croiss (rimsxoli Sxweet ig the cr osses blackx P) 1. 189225. Fllin
isexasi xdriillillg prograix XXere f'Oiloxd ii thl selectioii of, dliseaxe Ii.Crinxlg anii

ABOVE: AU-Producer-an inbred line from the cross Crimson Sweet x P.1. 189225. BELOW: AU-Jubilant-an inbred line from the cross Jubilee x P.1. 271778. tick. 'Ii(
not 1011)41. Theseii
Xlipfel 101 i

fleshis bight r ed and( firm11

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tablesx I and 2. Brein (lglillex 'iii lxa being offel thei f)oxxililif of fiji thler deXiifllitiflll ikX

illl dcl edl~ Xai lie Lire li tile (l it cuilt i\ ais of'Itiiei\le resistance, jill eld, liait\, iidc dlieas
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P1rodulcer illiginiated frilmI rli1ill il'ackcrosxinig and(illlllcdlling to illitlili Iiilidi
FilsaIxlil wil t x

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I illit

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gllte wXithi illilforili illileter for)I the lciigtl of ftle iliii. iTle in i it light gree biiiackgrounid coloir wXith (lark grecen irregular stipes (olItililliX f,(il tihe liigtii of thie fi hit.

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L iMI (1)1 0 [I lxxii \NlftilllMV, \ Al iw\i \,l 1978 Tiiiuot (;it 1982

thick. Thie flexli is Lilt

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31,974 .14 41)3 39,555

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Alabama Agricultuical Expe-imien I S tatio~n

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Proper Use of RAlr on Apples Poses No Residue Problem
K S RYMAL, WA DOZIER, JR, JW KNOWLES, and RD COSPER, Departmrent of HortcUture
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EXPANDING DAIRY SURPLUSES and annual price support program costs exceeding $2 billion led to legislation authorizing the Secretary of Agriculture to levy an assessment of $0.50 per hundredweight on all milk marketed. Effective date was to be October 1982, with an additional $0.50 assessment authorized to be effective April 1, 1983. The second assessment was subject to refunds for producers who reduced milk marketings. The initial assessment, announced to begin December 1, 1982, was blocked in Federal Court in South Carolina and was not collected. In March 1983, Secretary of Agriculture John Block announced implementation of a $0.50 assessment to be effective April 16, 1983. All milk marketed is subject to the assessment program whether it is used in fluid milk products or manufactured products purchased under the price support program. Purposes of the legislation are to obtain funds from dairy farmers to help pay costs of the price support program and to bring about reductions in milk supply. Dairy industry leaders in several Southern States objected to this approach to reduce supply because no milk surplus problem exists in the region. Almost all milk marketed in the South is Grade A eligible for fluid use, and most of it is used in fluid products. Manufactured dairy products, such as cheese, butter, and non-fat dry milk, represent a small fraction of marketings in the region. Few, if any, of these products made in the region are sold to the Commodity Credit Corporation. Impact of the assessment program was seen to be a price reduction todairy farmers in an area where milk supply is already short. Further, there would be no price reductions to consumers to encourage increased milk consumption. Shortly after announcement of the assessment program, a study was initiated that addressed the assessment issue and some program alternatives relevant to the dairy industry in the Southeast (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina). The Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station cooperated in this study and produced the project report.' In 1982, about 98% of all milk produced in the Southeast was sold to plants and dealers. This amounted to about 6.4 billion lb. Essentially all marketings were Grade A. Milk product consumption in the six states was calculated using 1980 population data and
H., LOWELL E. WILSON, WAYNE M.CAUTHIER, AND HAROLD M. HARRIS. The 1982 Dairy Legislation: Impact on Six Southern States; Some Program Alternatives. A contrihuting report to the Southern Regional Dairy Marketing Research Project 5-166. Ala. Agr. Exp. Sta. Agr. Econ. Dept. Ser. 34. January 1983.
'CARLEY, DALE

1982 Dairy Legislation -

Southern Dairymen
L,E. WILSON, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
national per capita consumption of milk products. Total fluid products consumption was 6% greater than the volume of Grade A milk marketed by farmers in the six states. Aggregate milk product consumption was about 2.5 times the regional milk supply. Thus, the region is largely sufficient on local supply for fluid markets, which is about 43% of total milk product consumption, but almost entirely dependent on other areas for manufactured products. Producer cost data published by the USDA show that assessments will have varying impacts among regions on producer returns, see table. The all-region total returns per hundredweight of milk marketed to operator labor, family labor, and management have been decreasing since 1979, down to $1.97 in 1981. The Appalachian region is most likely typical of the Southeast, and it is the region in which returns to producers at $0.70 per hundredweight were lowest. The $0.50 assessment represents 71% of returns in the region, but only 20.6% of the Upper Midwest producers. Application of the second $0.50 amounts to 143% of net returns in the Appalachian region. Alternative programs, including support price changes, also were studied in relation to the assessment program. As a basis for program comparisons, estimates were made of 1983 milk marketings and values in the six Southeastern States. In the absence of any price support changes in 1983, volume of milk marketings was estimated to total 6.4 billion lb. with a value of $974 million, or $15.22 per hundredweight. Application of the assessment program would reduce value of marketings 3.9 to 9.7% in the Southeast. With this program, there were no changes projected in milk product prices or consumption. Support price reductions of $1.00 and $1.50 per 100 lb. would reduce value of milk marketed 7.7 and 11.4%, respectively. Volume of milk marketed would decline 1.7 and 2.5%. With price support reductions, milk product prices decrease and there would be a consumption response. Two modified price support reduction programs were considered. In the first case, Class I prices were maintained at levels existing prior to a support cut of $1.00. This program had the least negative impact on milk marketings and value in the Southeast. Marketings would decline only 0.3%, total value would be 1.5% less, and blend price would drop $0.17 per 100 lb. The reason for the smaller impact is that only classes II and III uses (19%) would be affected by the lower support price. In the second case, support price was cut $1.50 and Class I prices $0.50. This would result in a total volume marketings decline of 1.2% and a drop in value of 5.3%. An assessment program appears to be inequitable by endangering supply adequacy in areas where milk is produced primarily for the fluid milk market, such as the Southeast. Programs that provide price support reductions offer incentive to decrease production in surplus regions and encourage increased nationwide consumption of surplus milk products through lower consumer prices.
Relationship of assessment to returns $0.50 assessment $1.00 assessment

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EFFECTS ON MILK PRODUCTION RETURNS AMONG REGIONS AS A RESULT OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENTS

Region

Return per hundredweight'

Absolute Relative Absolute Relative Dol. Dol. Pct. Dol. Pct. Northeast ............... 2.31 0.50 21.6 1.00 43.2 Upper Midwest .......... 2.43 .50 20.6 1.00 41.2 Corn Belt............... . .76 .50 65.8 1.00 131.6 Appalachian............. .70 .50 71.4 1.00 142.9 South Plains............. 1.73 .50 28.9 1.00 57.8 Pacific.................. 2.06 .50 24.3 1.00 48.5 All regions............... 1.97 .50 25.4 1.00 50.8 .'After payment of all costs, this is return to the operator, family labor, and management.

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

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A conceptual model depicting the importance of small sized bluegill as food for young-of-the-year largemouth bass. When the "window" is open (i.e., bluegills are spawning frequently), young-of-the-year . largemouth bass grow rapidly and pass "through the abnnity n .......................... window" to reach a harvestable i size. ..........

reach harvestable size, limits the standing stock of bass in the system. The fish populations in West Point Lake, therefore, are abundant ........... essentially "unbalanced" because catch per Iarer ::::::::::::::::::::::.prey effort of harvestable size fish (bass as . ................... unit of . .... ........ .. ....... . well as bream, catfish, and crappie) is often less than satisfactory. The specific problem in West Point Lake, then, is with the prey populations, particularly the bluegill, which are comprised of slow growing individuals of small average size that do not spawn frequently. One solution to this problem is to create a situation W. DAVIES and S.MALVESTUTO, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures where bluegill growth is improved so that lakes, this percentage is low. For example, average size increases and individuals in the THE CHALLENGE for fisheries man- in a well managed farm pond where fish population spawn more frequently; this agers in the 1980's is to develop management populations are "in balance," usually 20-25% would result in more bass reaching harstrategies for improving fishing in estab- of the total standing stock (by weight) con- vestable size and larger bluegill, catfish, and lished waters now that fewer rivers and sists of bass. Why, then, are there fewer crappie in the fish harvest. The only cost effective management alterstreams are being impounded. The best largemouth bass per acre comprising less native available to managers concerned with strategy will include not only the concept of total weight in West Point Lake? In West Point Lake there are more than 20 reservoir fish production is to use the benmaximizing yield, but will also involve socioeconomic considerations. As a result, ap- species of fish, whereas in bream/bass- eficial effects of bass predation. Larger propriate strategies will be based on an stocked farm ponds, there are only two or largemouth bass are an extremely important understanding of the dynamics of growth, three species. Having a large number of component of the system because they can reproduction, and death of fish populations, species is good in one sense because the effectively prey on the slow growing, largeron knowledge of inter-species relationships, system is fairly stable, i.e., not subject to sized prey, thus reducing their abundance and ultimately, on fishermen interactions much variation due to factors stressing the and competitive edge. In fact, in many large with the resource. system. On the other hand, a large number impoundments with a diversity of species, A management strategy developed for of species competing for the available food there simply may not be a surplus of largeWest Point Lake, a 25,000-acre impound- resources means that the growth and repro- mouth bass for harvest in most years; therement on the Chattahoochee River, illus- duction of each species may be limited. Also, fore, the management objective is to allow trates an attempt by fishery managers to in many mainstream reservoirs and com- bass predation to beneficially affect prey optimize the benefits from the resource. The munity fishing lakes in the Southeast where populations dynamics and fish harvest. If the 16-in. minimum size restriction on management strategy is based on a 16-in. bluegill and gizzard shad coexist, the shad minimum size limit for harvest of large- tend to out-compete the bluegill. As a result, largemouth in West Point Lake is accepted mouth bass. As is usually the case, there is an bluegill grow more slowly and spawn less by fishermen, there will be initially a greater initial cost associated with the strategy. The frequently throughout the summer in shad- catch (not harvest) rate of largemouth bass as "cost" in this situation is complete restriction dominated reservoirs than in farm ponds bass accumulate in the system and predate of the harvest of largemouth bass less than 16 containing only bass and bluegill. In farm more heavily on prey populations. Eventualponds, bluegill spawn frequently from May ly, a greater average size in the bream, crapin. The reasons for restricting bass harvest in through September; therefore, in the farm pie, and catfish populations will be achieved. this manner are based on the results of the pond-environment, young-of-the-year (age This, in time, will allow these populations to ongoing fishery study on West Point Lake by 0) bass have ample small fish as prey spawn more frequently, and result in a greatAlabama Agricultural Experiment Station throughout the summer and grow rapidly to er production of bass when larger numbers survive to reach a harvestable size. researchers. This research began when the reach a harvestable size 1 year later. At some future time, the resource will In West Point Lake, relatively few bass lake was impounded in the fall of 1974. The study emphasizes the estimation of growth reach harvestable size; they grow slowly and achieve a "state of balance" where the proand death rates of largemouth bass and mea- suffer a high death rate because few small duction of harvestable size fish will be optisures the rate that bass are added to the forage fishes, e.g., recently hatched bream, mized. Such populations are of greater soare available to them in the shoreline areas. cioeconomic worth because the resource will system. It was found that West Point Lake was Based on this information, a conceptual produce a greater number of "satisfactory" typical of many mainstream reservoirs, in model depicting the relationship between fishing trips (higher catch rates). Ultimately, that relatively few bass were present. If all "bream" reproduction and the growth and the restrictions on bass harvest can be modithe fish in West Point lake could be weighed, survival of bass was developed, see figure. In fied to allow for a gradual increase in fish largemouth bass would comprise less than West Point Lake, the "window" in the figure removed from the system, while still re10% of the total; compared to other systems remains virtually shut. This situation, cou- taining sufficient bass to maintain "balance" such as farm ponds and community fishing pled with a high catch rate of bass that do in the fish community.
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Regulating Largemouth Bass Harvest on West Point Lake with a 16-inch Minimum Size Limit

10

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

N

New Auburn Processing Method Could Boost Sweet Potato Market
D. SMITH,
H HARRIS,

and KS RYMAL, Department of Horticulture l.A, MoCASKEY, Department af Animal and Dairy Sciences

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S WINE WASTE Can be Valuable for Refeeding and On-Far Energy Production
DT, HILL, Department
of Agricultural Engineering TJ, PRINCE, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences

RECENT NATIONAL economiconditions have made it essential that producers use the most efficient production methods and techniques to realize a profit. Experience during the decade of the 1970's, when availability and cost of energy were often unpredictable and unstable, also established the need for a stable, on-farm energy source for the commercial production of livestock. Results obtained in a 2-year study at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station indicate that swine producers may have the answer to both of these situations right at hand. Swine residue (formerly classified as "animal waste") actually contains the potential for reducing the greatest cost of production, feeding, and at the same time provide an economically feasible, on-farm energy supply. Flushing systems for waste removal from swine production facilities are the most common method used in Alabama. The waste utilization system currently being investigated at Auburn makes use of these existing flushing systems to recover valuable residue materials from the waste. A standard

commercial vibrating screen solid-liquid separator is used for recovery. The properties of the two fractions (solid and liquid) were determined for four flow rates, each tested with five screen mesh sizes. Both fractions were evaluated for their refeeding and methane production potential. For methane production using conventional anaerobic fermentation, the total solids should be in the 5-10% range, while refeeding requires 15-20% total solids. The data show that an 18-mesh screen and a flow rate of 456.8 or 685.3 liters per square meter-minute give the best product for refeeding. Methane production would require a mesh size of 60, since total solids values are in the 5-10% range for all flow rates on the 60-mesh screen. For refeeding, the nutrient composition of the waste solids was determined for each screen size and flow rate. As shown in the table, both screen size and flow rate greatly affected the dry matter, protein, ash (mineral), and fiber content of the solids. To refeed the solids, it is necessary to use a screen size and flow rate that will produce a material that contains enough dry matter to be easily handled, yet retains as high a level of nutrients as possible. Using high flow rates with small screen size results in solids that are too wet to handle and contain high levels of ash. If the flow rate is low with a large screen size, the solids retained are largely the seed coverings from the grain, which are high in fiber and low in energy. Therefore, intermediate levels produce the most desirable product for refeeding. Gestating sows were used in digestibility experiments since the high level of fiber and relatively low energy content in the solids make them unsuitable for the growingfinishing pig. Waste solids were added to the diets to replace either energy or protein in typical corn-soy gestation diets. The results indicate that the energy in the waste solids is moderately digestible (55%), but the protein is poorly digested. Thus, the solids should be used as an energy feed. The metabolizable energy content of the solids was found to be about 50-60% of the value of corn. The maximum intake of the solids by the sow was 4 lb. of dry matter per day due to the high fiber content. Based on these results, it was determined that the waste solids could replace 60% of the energy in a standard gestation diet. Waste solids in this study were collected daily and fed to the sows without further processing. The sows readily consumred the solids, and no health problems were observed. Swine waste solids offer excellent potential as an alternative feed source for the sow herd. The requirement of an 18-mesh screen for producing a good refeeding material and a 60-mesh screen for a good methane feed-

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Treatment

DM'
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CP
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Cell walls
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stock would suggest that the simultaneous utilization in refeeding and methane production is impossible. This conclusion is also supported by data from this study. Using the 60-mesh screen and 456.8 liters per square meter-minute flow rate allows approximately 60% of the potential methane to be lost in the liquid. The 18-mesh screen, which is ideal for refeeding, allows even more of the potential methane to pass in the liquid. With the screening system used in the study, the 18-mesh solids are a good material for refeeding, while the liquid material has approximately 70% of the potential methane production of the raw waste. Thus, the screening process produces two products, each best suited for a specific purpose. Refeeding of swine waste has already progressed to the point where reasonable estimates can be made regarding its use in conventional diets. The production of methane using the liquid fraction of the separate is just now being developed using a novel anaerobic fermentation technology. This approach uses a biological reactor termed the "anaerobic filter" and differs significantly from conventional technology. Requirement for total solids concentration ranges from below 1.5 to 2.0%, with small particulate solids and a major portion of the solids in the dissolved form. The liquid portion meets this requirement as well as having approximately 70% of the original methane potential. The utilization system currently under development at Auburn would use both fractions of this mechanically separated swine waste simultaneously. The solids are currently being refed in rations as high as 60% of the total diet. When the methane technology using the anaerobic filter and the liquid portion of the separate is perfected, the combination system should increase production efficiency while simultaneously providing an economical, stable, on-farm energy supply.

12

2Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

V,

Ti fleaf Pearim' Providi
E.E. THOMAS, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences J.T. EASON, Sand Mountain Substation D.M. BALL and B.G. RUFFIN, Alabama Cooperative Extension Service
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Proper Soil Fertility Levels Necessary for Economical Production by Winter Legumes
DH. RICKERL and JT. TOUCHTON, Department of Agronomy and Soils
TABLE 1. LEGUME YIELD AS AFFECTED

BY APPLICATION

OF LIME AND PHOSPHORUS

AGRICULTURE in the United States relies heavily on the use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers. These fertilizers often represent the major cost input for nonleguminous crop production. Estimates indicate that the cost of already expensive nitrogen fertilizer will more than double within the next 5 years. In the Southeast, growing annual winter legumes as a nitrogen source for summer grain crops has the potential to economically maintain high levels of production by reducing dependence on inorganic N fertilizer. Currently, however, the cost of growing these legumes is approximately equal to the value of the nitrogen they produce. Using various systems with reseeding legumes can eliminate yearly seeding, which is the primary cost associated with growing legumes. This approach is being investigated in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research. The amount of nitrogen produced varies with the legume species and the environment in which it is grown. Factors such as soil pH and general fertility levels are relatively simple to alter, and these factors may greatly influence nitrogen and dry matter production of both planted and reseeded legumes. Field studies were begun in 1980 at the E.V. Smith Research Center, on a Norfolk sandy loam soil, to determine the effects of soil pH and phosphorus levels on legume nodulation, yield, and nitrogen production. Legumes included in the study were Yuchee arrowleaf clover, Dixie crimson clover, and Vangard common vetch, all of which are reseeding winter annual legumes well adapted to the moderate to slightly acid soils of the Alabama Coastal Plains. Initial soil pH was 5.0 and soil-test values were 5 lb. per acre P (Very Low), 208 lb. per acre K (High), and 375 lb. per acre Ca (High). Lime and superphosphate treatments were applied in November 1980. Lime rates were 0 and 2 tons per acre, and superphosphate was applied at 0, 250, and 500 lb. per acre P2 0 5 . Potassium chloride was broadcast uniformly to provide 120 lb. per acre K2 0. Fertilizer treatments were disk incorporated and inoculated seeds were surface broadcast.

Arrowleaf clover 5.0 5.6 Lb. Lb. 2,000 1,010 0.............. 7,020 250............ .6,680 6,960 6,470 500............ .

Applied P 20 5 /acre, lb.

Yield/acre, by species and soil pH Common vetch Crimson clover 5.0 5.6 5.0 5.6 Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. 1,300 2,060 2,120 2,260 3,930 3,130 5,410 3,910 4,270 2,470 4,880 4,350

TABLE 2. TOTAL NITROGEN PRODUCTION BY WINTER LEGUMES AS AFFECTED BY APPLICATION OF LIME AND PHOSPHORUS

Applied P 2 0 5 /acre, lb. . 0.............. 250 ............ 500............ ..

Arrowleaf clover 5.0 5.6 Lb. Lb. 40 16 136 136 142 110

Yield/acre, by species and soil pH Crimson clover 5.0 5.6 Lb. Lb. 26 40 100 61 78 66

Common vetch 5.6 5.0 Lb. Lb. 33 24 78 63 89 69

In the spring of 1981, average soil pH determine the total amount of nitrogen prolevels were 5.0 and 5.6, respectively, on the duced and incorporated into the above no lime and 2-ton rate plots. Soil-test P ground portion of the plant, table 2. Total levels averaged 5 (Very Low), 49 (Medium), nitrogen production for each species inand 94 (High) lb. per acre, respectively, creased slightly with liming, and dramatifollowing the 0, 250-, and 500-lb. P 2 0 5 ap- cally from the 250 lb. per acre P2 0 5 rate. The greatest response occurred with arplications. The test was repeated during the rowleaf clover (almost a nine-fold increase), winter of 1981-82. Soil treatment effects on nodulation were where total nitrogen in the above ground determined by digging root samples and tissue ranged from 16 lb. per acre (without taking nodule weights and numbers. Ar- lime or P2 0 5 ) to 142 lb. (with lime and the rowleaf and crimson clover nodulation did high rate of P 2 0 5 ). Differences in nitrogen not respond to lime, but increased sig- production reflected differences in yield and nificantly with increasing P levels. Vetch nodulation rather than nitrogen concentranodulation showed no response to P, but tions in the tissue. The results of this study indicate that adeimproved with liming. Percent nitrogen in the top growth of the three legumes ranged quate phosphorus and suitable pH levels are from 2.1 to 4.8 at bloom stage, and 1.5 to 2.8 critical for economical nitrogen production at maturity; however, no correlation to soil by winter legumes. Attempting to use winpH or P was found. ter legumes as a nitrogen source on low Dry matter yields at maturity are sum- fertility soils, without applying lime and fermarized in table 1. The first rate of phos- tilizer, will most likely not be cost effective. phate greatly increased yields for all species, Excessive fertilization, however, is an extra but the high rate did not produce a further cost that will probably not improve growth increase. Lime also increased yields, but to a or nitrogen production. Optimum production in this test was lesser extent. Yields of arrowleaf clover showed the greatest response, improving achieved with Medium soil-test P levels and from 1,010 to 7,020 lb. per acre dry matter, soil pH between 5 and 5.6. This pH value is with low soil pH and P and high soil pH and lower than the requirement for perennial medium P rates, respectively. Crimson clo- legumes, such as white clover and alfalfa. As ver yields ranged from 2,120 to 5,410 lb., with other crops, liming and fertilizing acwhile vetch ranged from 1,300 to 4,270 lb. cording to soil test results will ensure proper The percent nitrogen at maturity was soil fertility levels for winter annual lemultiplied by the dry matter production to gumes.

14

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

EQUIPMENT BREAKDOWN is one of the more frustrating problemsthat confront equipment managers. Thus, managers want more reliable and maintainable equipment. Manufacturers can design highly reliable and maintainable equipment, but only by increasing the cost of the equipment. At some point this additional expense is not justified by the savings resulting from the additional operating time. Suppose an equipment owner/manager could pay an additional 20% to purchase a machine with an average time between failures of 100 hours rather than a less expensive machine with an average time between failures of 50 hours. Would this be a cost effective investment? Maybe not. An Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station study was done to answer such questions. The objective of this study was to determine how reliability (time between failures) affected the operational availability (time available for work) of equipment. A theoretical curve representing a breakdown of machine time for different times between failures was developed with collected data, figure 1. The 8 scheduled machine hour (SMH) day is divided into service time, delay time waiting for parts or a mechanic, repair time, and available or operating time. Since the machine is serviced for 1 hour each day, the service time percent is always 12.5. This leaves a maximum operating time of 87.5%, or 7 hours per day. The availability curve would start at zero and continue to increase as time between failure (TBF) increased, but at a decreasing rate. As the TBF increases from 0 to 25 hours, availability increases from 0 to 75.4%. However, as the TBF increases from 25 to 50 hours, availability increases only from 75.4 to 81.0%, a very marginal gain. To obtain an additional 5% increase in availability, the TBF would have to be increased from 50 to 250 hours. Also, as TBF increases, repair and delay time become less important. A simulation program was written to calculate the operational availability, based on time between failures, time to repair, and delay time. It also includes daily service when necessary. Distributions of time between failures, time to repair, and delay

FIG. 1. A theoretical curve of operational FIG. 2. Operational availabilities as deteravailability, repair time, delay time, times ser- minedfor different times between failure for vice time percentages for different and be- ation from the simulation of machine opertween failures, given an 8 scheduled ma- two different times to repair (TTR), an averchine hour day, 1 hour of service per day, and age delay time of 2.73 hours, 8 scheduled 1 hour of delay time and 3 hours of repair time machine hours per day, and I hour of service per day. for each failure. machine is down once it has failed. In this case the difference is 4.30 hours. Note that as the time between failures increases so does availability, but at a decreasing rate. The shape of the curve is independent of machine type. Although the data are for feller bunchers, an analysis of any other machine with the same time distributions would yield a similar graph. An increase in availability of a more reliable machine can be translated into increased operating time, which results in increased production and its associated return or income. The increase in machine reliability would result from some modification, redesign, or change in maintenance practices. The cost of the change that brought about the increase in reliability can be compared to the return to see if the changes are economically feasible. In conclusion, the effect of time between failures on availability indicates that: (1) if availability is poor, the largest gains can be made by increasing the time between failures up to the point where the average is about 20 to 25 hours; (2) if the average time between failures is about 20 to 30 hours, the gains by increasing the time between failures are about equal to those achieved by decreasing time to repair or delay time; and (3) once the average time between failures reaches approximately 40 hours, efforts should be concentrated on reducing repair or delay time.

time were collected on feller bunchers. Figure 2 shows the effect of reliability or time between failures on availability for two different times to repair the feller bunchers. Since the simulations were run for a limited time using the same time to repair (YITR) and delay time distributions, the points do not fall along a smooth curve as would be expected. The two curves have the same shape and are approximately parallel over the range shown. The difference in the height of the two curves is due to the aimount of time the

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

15

LC. SUMNER and LL HYCHE, Dle ,rfT- ent of Zoology-Entomology

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Stationh

Results of agglutination test indicate whether bird has resistance to specific disease.

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Ala~bama, Agi-iultuial F vperiuicnif Slttion

Yellow-Poplar Volume
in the

Hilly Coastal Plain
M.S. GOLDEN and C.L.TU1TTLE, Department of Forestry SA. KNOWE, Crown Zellerback Paper Company

ume, inside or outside bark, to total cubicY ELLOW-POPLAR is a well-formed foot volume; T = merchantable top diameter valuable timber species especially useful for (in inches), outside bark; D = d.b.h. (in veneer production. It is relatively abundant inches); and the b's are appropriate coon the hilly Coastal Plain of Alabama, Geor- efficients. The coefficients are shown in table gia, and Mississippi, primarily on well- 2. As an example, to determine the merchandrained stream bottoms and on protected slopes. However, cubic-foot volume equa- table volume to a 6-in, top for a tree of 16 in. tions specifically for this region were not d. b. h. and a total height of90 ft. (1)use table 1 available until developed through the Ala- to determine the total volume, which is 49.25 cu. ft. for outside bark and 43.50 cu. ft. for bama Agricultural Experiment Station. Data were obtained from 173 yellow- inside bark (from the formulain the footnote); poplar trees distributed throughout most of (2) determine the ratio of merchantable the hilly Coastal Plain in Alabama, on lands volume to total volume using the formula owned by Auburn University, American cited above and the coefficients from table 2 Can Company, Hammermill Paper Com- for outside bark, e.g., , pany, Georgia Kraft Company, Gulf States Paper Company, MacMillan-Bloedel Company, and the United States Forest Service. .LUI ~l La -0.663955 16(63.228 l~( 3.263456 0.9659 R= 1.0+ Trees ranging in diameter from 6.8 to 24.0 in. were felled and cross-sectional disks taken at regular intervals for laboratory analysis. (0.9664 for inside bark); (3) multiply this ratio Using established procedures, equations by the total volume determined in step 1, were developed which estimate the total resulting in a merchantable volume of 47.57 cubic-foot wood volume in a tree bole, using cu. ft. outside bark (42.04 cu. ft. inside bark). This information provides professional diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) and total height as input. Separate equations were foresters and landowners with the tools to developed which allow estimation of volume accurately estimate the amount of volume in with or without bark. These can be more standing yellow-poplar timber. Such volume readily used for field work in tabular form, estimates are essential in planning timber management,scheduling harvesting, and table 1. A further refinement was made which projecting revenues. allows calculation of merchantable volume from the total volume. Merchantable vol- TABLE 2. COEFFICIENTS FOR ESTIMATING RATIO OF MERCHANTABLE VOLUME TO TOTAL VOLUME, ume normally includes only that volume INSIDE AND OUTSIDE BARK, OF YELLOWbelow a specific minimum top diameter of POPLAR IN THE HILLY COASTAL PLAIN the tree bole. Formulas were developed to estimate the ratio of merchantable volume to Coefficients Ratio b3 b2 b1 equation any specified top diameter to the total tree volume, both with and without bark. These took the form, Ratio = 1.0 + b 1 (Tb2Db3), Inside bark ..... -0.682552 3.406393 3.287484 where Ratio = the ratio of merchantable vol- Outside bark ... -0.663955 3.392287 3.263456
1

TABLE 1. TOTAL VOLUME (CUBIC FEET), OUTSIDE BARK , FOR YELLOW-POPLAR IN THE HILLY COASTAL PLAIN

D.b.h.,
in. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
1

Total height, ft.
45 5.14 6.34 7.73 9.31 11.07 13.01 50 5.51 6.84 8.39 10.14 12.10 14.26 16.63 55 5.88 7.35 9.05 10.97 13.13 15.51 18.11 60 6.25 7.85 9.71 11.81 14.16 16.75 19.59 22.68 65 6.62 8.36 10.37 12.64 15.19 18.00 21.08 24.42 28.04 70 6.99 8.86 11.03 13.48 16.22 19.24 22.56 26.16 30.06 34.24 75 9.37 11.68 14.31 17.25 20.49 24.04 27.90 32.07 36.55 41.34 46.44 51.85 80 9.87 12.34 15.14 18.28 21.74 25.52 29.64 34.09 38.87 43.98 49.42 55.18 61.28 67.70 74.46 85 90 95 100 105 110 115

13.00 15.98 19.30 22.98 27.01 31.38 36.11 41.19 46.61 52.39 58.52 65.00 71.82 79.00 86.53

13.66 16.81 20.33 24.23 28.49 33.12 38.13 43.50 49.25 55.37 61.86 68.71 75.94 83.54 91.51 99.85

17.65 21.36 25.47 29.97 34.87 40.15 45.82 51.89 58.34 65.19 72.43 80.06 88.08 96.50 105.30

22.39 26.72 31.46 36.61 42.17 48.14 54.52 61.32 68.53 76.15 84.18 92.63 101.48 110.75 120.43 130.52

27.97 32.94 38.35 44.18 50.46 57.16 64.30 71.87 79.87 88.30 97.17 106.47 116.20 126.36 136.96

34.42 40.09 46.20 52.77 59.80 67.27 75.20 83.58 92.42 101.71 111.45 121.65 132.29 143.39

62.43 70.25 78.54 87.30 96.54 106.25 116.43 127.09 138.22 149.83

2 = 1.425697 + 0.001826 (D H).

Total volume (outside bark) = 1.798654 + 0.002060 (D2 H) where D = d.b.h. (inches) and H = total height (feet). Total volume for inside bark

18

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

"420 LANDPLASTER" AND GYPSUM, GOOD CALCIUM SOURCES FOR PEANUTS
D.L. HARTZOG and FRED ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils

CALCIUM LEVELS in the soil affect peanut yields and grades in a highly consistent manner. This is because of the unique way in which peanuts get calcium for pod development. Like other plants, the root system of the peanut plant absorbs all the calcium needed for vegetative growth. Calcium absorbed in this manner moves freely through the stems into the leaves and flowers. Probably all soils in the Wiregrass area have enough calcium to meet the need for maximum vine growth. Peanuts' special need for calcium develops after the peg, which is the pollinated flower, enters the soil. Immediately after the peg enters the soil, calcium stops moving from roots via the main stem of the plant to the peg. Consequently, the developing pod must get the rest of the calcium it needs directly from the surrounding soil. Because of this unusual way in which calcium is obtained by peanut pods, soil surrounding the nuts must be higher in available calcium than is necessary for the soil occupied only by roots. Most Alabama farmers supply calcium to their peanuts by building soil calcium levels with applications of agricultural limestone. However, 15-20% of peanuts grown in Alabama need supplemental calcium in the top 2 to 3 in. of soil during the period of pod filling. Since about 1950, the most common method to meet this need has been either by liming or by dusting gypsum (calcium sulfate) on the plant at the early flowering stage. When gypsum is applied in this manner, it falls in the zone of pod formation and is

present when the need for calcium by pods is greatest. Although finely ground gypsum is excellent for this purpose, other calcium sulfate sources should be equally satisfactory. Field studies were conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in 1980, 1981, and 1982 on farmers' fields to evaluate a granular calcium sulfate material known as "420 landplaster." Marketed by the U.S. Gypsum Corporation,' 420 landplaster was compared with regular, finely ground gypsum. These two materials were compared at 250 and 500-lb.-per-acre rates. Two dates of application were compared: (1) broadcast at planting (no incorporation of material), and (2) band placement in a 12- to 14-in. band over the row about 60 days after planting (early bloom). There was no difference in the effects of the 250 and 500-lb.-per-acre rates of either 420 landplaster or gypsum on yield or percent sound mature kernels (SMK) in any of the experiments. Neither did time of application of either material affect yield or grade. Therefore, yields and grades listed in the table are averages of the rates and times of application for each material. No yields were obtained from the 1980 experiments because of a severe drought. Two experiments were harvested in 1981. One was on an Americus loamy sand, located 3 miles east of Headland in Henry County.

The field was low in available calcium and had not been cropped for the past 10 years. Peanut foliage exhibited a normal green color throughout the growing season except on the untreated plots, which remained dark green and were still blooming profusely at harvest time. Yields were increased an average of 1,440 lb. per acre by gypsum and 1,450 lb.by 420 landplaster. Percent SMK was increased 5 or 6 percentage points by each calcium source. The other experiment was on a Bonifay loamy sand that was low in calcium and had not been cropped for the past 20 years. The calcium amendments significantly increased yield and grade. Yield increases averaged 1,390 lb. per acre from gypsum and 1,760 lb. from 420 landplaster. Percent sound mature kernels (SMK) was increased 11 percentage points by gypsum and 13 points by 420 landplaster. One experiment was harvested in 1982. It was on a Troup loamy sand that was low in calcium and had not been planted to any crop for the past 21 years. Yields of plots receiving gypsum averaged 2,920 lb. per acre. Plots receiving 420 landplaster averaged 2,810 lb. per acre, and plots receiving no supplemental calcium averaged only 1,010 lb. per acre. Gypsum increased SMK by 8 percentage points, and 420 landplaster increased SMK by 9 percentage points. In summary, available soil calcium was deficient at all three test sites. Yields and grades of peanuts were increased equally by regular, finely ground gypsum and by 420 'Research supported by a grant from U.S. Gyp- landplaster. These materials proved to be sum Corporation. equal as sources of calcium for peanuts.

EFFECTS OF GYPSUM AND 420 LANDPLASTER ON YIELD AND GRADE OF FLORUNNER PEANUTS, 1981-82

Sl series seris

Lb./acre

Soil-test calcium

Index

None
Lb.

Per acre yield Gypsum lSoil420 landplaster Lb. 2,630 2,650 2,920 Lb. 3,000 2,660 2,810

Percent sound mature kernels None Gypsum landplaster 420 Pct. 60 57 66 Pct. 71 63 74 Pct. 73 62 75

Olin and Billy Deal, Dale County, 1981 Bonifay loamy sand Parker Farms, Henry County, 1981 Americus loamy sand Olin and Billy Deal, Dale County, 1982 Troup loamy sand

140 138 100

L 60 L 60 L 40

1,240 1,210 1,010

Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

19

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CH BURMESTER and FRED ADAMS, Deportment of Agronomy and Soils Till] B
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G le A Buchanant o, Dlirecr wcop. e PUBLs tw fAfN hightwigh clts of 12fl\ rctrls Reseamm, B3 rocal c pct~ Penaltyfor $30 Prvate ue,

POSTAGE PAIDr
U.S. DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE

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