PI::B~Y *: ~ .ifs; ii . ? h .4 ?s;r.;;;d? F AE~ * i 'I C ,r'AjJnJ V5 -i ;It I ;Ii c a n~ '\ -- ilr"is i ~c"- H' 4:' j ~' ~cI t>4* 3 li~i~ " 4;i f .'~ '4 9 ;~t~~" rC? ~, I-t~~ 1"' 1*I w 4~e,,_ ~":--: ti I s_ t I Zr00 op. p I ~c ------- .1, NA vi r*:1 DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS E \ FN N X IllfHI As at resuitt " Aliaama fatitt as strogits1 wadawe . ptro- f'1si )1 'sa'iitt ',OHI) neat ori farititis at' tcotrd~ xitits ofi titit t otititittei coimtmoditities titis piaxt \eat, thei ecitittitiic ci i'i bseforet. facinig tine' tif'tii Roilinidt, St. it'ttci' ttligiit't xcii s ini itsetiia tjltiii 't i t Centirys IndteedtI i9,S2 is it 'ituaki' ii fitetk stt iti ' oots a fillmert'r across this Stitt(, as tins steck to br'tak tilt stim lug iii tsii cliii \tidtlt' (;eti ia Ciollege iniCo'i ran h firilt 1961-1963, tt'ccixt f is 13 S. li Pit'\ et frttit ti ct 1,I~i tsits ofi Geortigia, itthtcIi tit gi, Cci Veal"s I a xx pri it s for farmeris inl 198 9.icn) he liai'gt' attribted to poo mart it ,it-i tions alit t55iivi't' re\ ncre((ased( costs oif poduiction, ' at sotiitxxhat d~iflectnt ill situiationi 5 \'dt'5. Poor I (till 5ol thlanIl i 115 ini 1979 and~ 1980) had been'i wiepra droughtll ~i'iiidt caused' pr iiiiariis l_ that tcit \S ties bel'owV thet pr ofitale lcx ('1 Wthilt' unicertalin h~'1 GALE A. BUCHANAN iti ti siots ii i'tt gil its ircsctih a.fssistanit (1966- 1967) anid ax anl NI R e- Ali iii iiti Ptriiir to citilltoi in 1976, HRoland sers ('C ats an associatt' pi til's- and we ak markets, att' andt undeftrgra'tet c'uirst's it thait simt' egi re(lilial prolemcis that aLie must i (hal 'with, st'atlil inlcreasing coisto aitCa. lit ix itmembher' tif, tlit Pitiiti f Scit'nce iproduct ion inpu)1ts flas l105 ((Ito tfit'. to the list of, fai p roblemiis ini recen't \ cars. Onth tfiaxtragt', expend'iturel s for all prioduictioni itifiits iist'(f \ Al\abiama fairmers inicreased at stalgL.~crnlog 12 percent pei \car fiomoll 1976 to 19S1) Iiici'taxiltg costs Ad\s atuceitittt oif, Sc.it'nct' tfit' Worldt's Poolti ittmn tin' Ftiritfiac of Science, andf the Stuithern Assoitionit of Agricultural Scientists, Itc. trs Scitit .'t' Xxiciat ii ii hias e fitch notedf forI ailmost e\ erx prioductioni illplit, wxith aid)1to non -of)('ttol' laindlord elx l tlic'solc cwet'till hut somen li. 119)11)5 flax c' shown.1 titioxtialix lam g.c inicreases. For exatiph', filtci'cst oil fiin inoi'tgagt' debt and~ oper'iationi~l costs inclcasit 9)) purt, e't (liu tilt lit't I-ci 1976 5(0 period. Sinice p1rices farmicrs haxc i'ccc eti for then proditcts fits( chfeld ftil\ consxtanit, ot tx e diopped in soicce 'scs, thc i'txlt olif i itli 1)11)t(,stsflax.* beechia seriotis cost-pr1cc sifoec/c. This is diiliiti/ci bx fig'Iimcs sfloxxlog ti'( f)('clc'itaglc that fi in111 pilccx ifc of glross aL-i in ollic'I)ttii the past t (fccadic p~roduiction cspenlscs flax t' gcterails 1wii ill tile, highd 7 oi YI) per'icentt I atit whefnc coiiparedt to faminl sale's, 'I'flost cst fliitt' ttiit.It'i wxas TI iptrt'iit. Ini 1980) hoxt''xci, him prodii 111 i'xpt'isi' hit ait// 100 hitan peicitt f grss f in tcitoe This cical-l\ illilsttat's tht'(lit ia tic't'( addedt't fdimnsiont to ircsearcfh t'ffOts of thc Alinaii kgiiltm- Ex)11 er'sici Itittit Staition. Nio loiigeri is it Stif -cicnt to (fittli l itc i fh'i . tscics's of it nt'xxN satict' at tn'x method of conltiolilng pcsts, or t aItoss piiofiction praictice til ptodtftit itx aut'. 'lhc real test is ati crit.ia ccollolllic ailal\si1 that slos xx iictie thec 1)ractice ix dlt'it-ablt ill tiic fact if clt titeciolllc coinfitionis fimi \lamx tiigs fat'lc int muist ihe considetrcd itn cxaiiatitig fat tlilig practictes alit 1 IIIGHLIGHTh or Agricultural Research SUMMER 1982 VOL. 29. NO. 2 A. (iptimtins rt'ptort tof tst'am c-it psiiibisii'lix1 tute A itfitilit I 'ic (;xi I A. T'F f' lit IT\ it \ . ti llx lFxw ililtS a (I ,] I .. .. .. itot-i .Xsxislt 1)irc R' . H.I \ h ( IS ;it \ \1551 iS .. * . I Assittt . L littr t 'ith Eitor (1is xii kosloith Pt iftisit I I tA. piogris. A x ldtciitocail i xiisiclisItlti iiiis pi'ixfictutu parat ersitti. Suct. ilictitis is g ctigrapliical I icatioiti cmx ii- tin tiiitll conditfittitn and~ mnttageril ext'ptertist' ats cit s tilitatine xxl ti) s pccific fai Ii frit tigatts ins ols tog a is itatis i cite ciiiiiiitv canll ipact til silt. it ctlitilii ft l tilt'i i t.si/i xxii it Xi nt/hii o/- 1ciiitiiii utu sssatPrfxsro DAL (;I x Imm it thctl rapifd(escalatioin in (lost prtnitctiit itipots illclaioni tio adot' of I s issiuc if' prioductionm (ifmnta petanuts coists ffill xx tiot t ega ( to iact C tiit'l I toir lie i tctiticalix Caiiiiltt't c ' alt im 11 alillpic. tlit liut not fin ltita pt'aiiits that st' at a losser pi icc ifio t' ftaxc numierious texpeimenicts hcing ciiitfictt'i betweetn'i prodtucitjti lcxc anit proifits. We ])itos) lb itiin Wtallis of agli cilitInt- ifiimts ill fain '1s itt the 5 ears ithea. ON THE COVER: Mosquito larvicide (B.t.i.) field test in Tuskegee National Forest. FREQUENCY OF RAIN & HOURS OF LEAF WETNESS Influence Intensity of Pecan Scab A.J. LATHAM, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology Scab Developed When Rain Fell All inoculated test trees that were exposed for periods beginning June 16, 23, and 30--a time when there was rain-developed scab. Noninoculated trees getting the same exposure also developed scab lesions 7-9 days after a rain. Leafwetness that accompanied rains of June 19 and23 and July 6 lasted 16, 12.75, and 12 hours, respectively. Amount of rain did not appear to be critical for infection and lesion development. As little as 0.03 in. on June 23 provided sufficient moisture for infection. The important criterion was hours of leaf wetness following rainfall. Scab developed on test trees 7-9 days after a rainy day when leaves remained wet 12 to 16 hours. Test trees did not become infected during an extended rainless period when relative humidity of 100% occurred for only 1 to 11 hours per day. Conidia trapped/90 cu. ft. of air sampled 0 19T5 WEATHER PLAYS an important role in development of pecan scab. Frequency of rain and hours of leaf wetness were the specific factors found to influence scab development in Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research. The study was done to relate meterological factors to dispersal of airborne Fusicladium effusum conidia (causal-agent ofpecan scab) to subsequent disease development. The conidia were trapped from April to mid-July in unsprayed pecan orchards near Auburn during 1975 and at the Turnipseed-Ikenberry Place, Union Springs, during 1980. Rainfall, humidity, temperature, wind speed, and leaf wetness were monitored. Scab Development Determined Scab development was determined weekly both years by collecting 20 compound leaves per tree from four different branches on each of 12 Schley trees. The first leaf on the shoot was collected and, as younger leaves developed, the second through sixth compound leaves were collected until the end of May or first week of June. Lesions on each leaflet were counted and the average number per leaf calculated for the week. Lesions on nutshucks were counted weekly from 60 nuts on marked branches from the first week of June to July 14. For each week of the test, 12 scab-free Schley pecan trees were grown in individual plastic bags. Six were inoculated with a suspension ofF. effusum conidia and six were left uninoculated. The trees were suspended from the limbs in the orchard at heights ranging from 6 to 18 ft. After exposure for 1 week, all trees were returned to the laboratory. Test trees were placed in a greenhouse and observed for 30 days for disease development. No water was allowed to contact the foliage during this period. The test was repeated over a period of 6 consecutive weeks from May 29 to July 14, 1980. As rains washed conidia from overwintering F. effusum stroma onto developing pecan leaves, leaf tissue and scab lesions increased in proportion to the increase in number of conidia. Rains provided favorable infection periods and led to rapid increases in numbers of lesions per leaflet. The number of lesions recorded for the fourth week ofApril 1975 (36.2) was of similar magnitude to that found in 1980 during the fourth week of May. Subsequently, the number of conidia increased 80-fold during the first week of May and reached a peak of 16,500 during the fifth week of May. Fungicides Needed The high numbers of F. effusum conidia produced from mid-May through June emphasize the need for fungicides at this time. The peak number of conidia was associated with an average of 300 lesions per compound leaf, which was a conservative count on leaves that were almost completely covered with lesions. Disease incidence became so high that trees defoliated from mid-July through August during the scab epidemic of 1975. Rain fell each week, except the fourthweek of April, and the number of shuck lesions more than doubled each week during June. Coalescence of lesions during the second week of July made accurate counts difficult. Nutlets shriveled, dried, and fell from trees until only 7 of the 60 nuts monitored for disease development were found on July 25. An analysis oflesion numbers for the fourth week of April showed that numbers for 1975 wvere 6.6 times greater than in 1980. A comparison of conidia and rainfall totals showed 63% more conidia and 39% more rainfall in 1975 than 1980. As revealed in the graphs, high numbers ofconidia and weekly frequency of rain were the most obvious factors related to the scab epidemic. Noninoculated trees exposed in the orchard for 1 week beginning May 29, June 9, and July 7, 1980, failed to develop scab on leaves. Inoculated trees exposed for 1 week beginning July 7 also failed to develop scab. No rain fell during the periods May 24 through June 18 and July 7 through 14. 10,000 [1 1980 75 1 Lesions, no. m Loaf 200 scab Shuck scab 100 4 ost Rainfall in. 2.' I 234 April I 2345 May ai 1 123 4 I 2 June July Number of Fusicladium effusum lesions and conidia in relation to weekly total rainfall during 1975 and 1980. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 3 I .. C ' /, Replicated tests for control of floodwater mosquitoes. - .-.--------- - * -, 7 i r~ Controlof Floodwater Mosquitoes witi .i. At water temperatures of 50-68°F. the :3 higher rates of the Abbott formulation provided a level of control comparable to that of the 3 rates ofTeknar ® and Abate 4-E, table. At 77 F, Teknar ® and Abate 4-E continued to 0 F OLLOWING PERIODS of heavy rainfall during the spring and summer months, Alabama residents are troubled by large numbers of mosquitoes emerging from woodland pools, roadside ditches, low-lying pasture areas, and standing water left as swollen streams and rivers recede. Species which breed in such temporary waters are commonly referred to as floodwater mosquitoes and represent some of the most annoying pests of man and livestock in the Southeast. Floodwater mosquitoes deposit their eggs in damp soil and ground litter along the margins of rain-water pools. The eggs lie dormant, enduring prolonged periods of drought as well as freezing temperatures. After overwintering, the eggs which have accumulated during the previous year or more hatch as the soil is covered by rain water or by flooding of adjacent streams. In one to several weeks following hatch, depending on water temperature, enormous numbers of mosquitoes emerge, often creating severe local problems. Auburn researchers have been investigating the effectiveness of various formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.) for control of floodwater mosquitoes. B.t.i. is a bacterial agent closely related to Thuricide ® and Dipel ® which have been widely used to control insect pests of field crops. Unlike these other products, however, B.t.i. is highly toxic to mosquitoes and has shown considerable promise as a safe and effective mosquito larvicide. Laboratory tests revealed that mosquito larvae exposed for as little as 4-5 minutes to low concentrations of B. t.i. applied to the water surface experienced virtually 100% mortality within 1 hour after treatment. The larvae ingest the bacterial spores and a potent endotoxin produced by the bacterium. This toxin is released in the mosquito midgut where it destroys the cells of the digestive tract causing paralysis and death. Small-plot field tests ofB. t.i. Alabama in in 1980 and 1981 have demonstrate I the effectiveness of this agent in killing floodwater mosquitoes such as Aedes canaden .sis,A. sticticus, A. vexans, and Psorophora ferox. Abbott Laboratories' WP form uilation of B.t:i., ABG-6108-II, was coimp ared with Teknar ®, another B.t.i. product, applied at manufacturers recommended rat es and with the widely used mosquito larvicideeAhate4-E as a standard. All field tests were conducted in circular, plastic-sided, open-bottom pools delimiting a surface area of 1 m'. PVC cyliniders were attached to a wooden stake withi n each test plot and positioned with the scre ened lower end in contact with the substrate, providing a column of water virtually identic al to that of the natural pool. Prior to treatmeent, 20 111and IV-instar larvae of a given sp ecies were placed in each test cylinder, elimi nating predators and providing a convenien t means by which mortality could be accurate ly assessed following treatment. Water ter nperatures were recorded to determine th e effect of temperature on larval mortality following B. t. i. applications. All materialsw ereapplied to the surface of each test plot with I-gal. compressed-air sprayers. provide good control, whereas the effectiveness of the Abbott material dropped significantly. This was especially noticeable at the lower application rates. A similar decrease in larvicidal activity with the Abbott formulation was observed at water temperatures below 50'F. The performance of other B.t.i. products and formulations needs to be evaluated at these lower temperatures to establish whether or not theyv, likewise, are relatively ineffective in killing mosquito larvae in cold water early in the season. Research is continuing to determine if this effect is caused by changes in toxicity of B. t. i. formulations at different water temperatures or if it simply reflects reduced feeding activity, and thus reduced ingestion of B.t.i. spores, by mosquito larvae at temperatures above or below 50-68'F. Field tests at Auburn have confirmed that B.t.i. is quite specific in killing mosquitoes and the larvae of a few other related aquatic flies while exhibiting virtually no adverse effects on other nontarget organisms. Three commercial B.t.i. products are currently being marketed as mosquito larvicides. Bactimos ® by Biochem Products and Vectobace by Abbott Laboratories are both wettable powders, whereas Teknar ® , a product of Sandoz, Inc., is available as an aqueous concentrate. All three products appear to provide good to excellent control offloodwater mosquitoes within the range of water temperatures at which most mosquito larvae develop in the Southeast. MEAN PERCENT MORTALITY AT INDICATED TEMPERAT BES, 24 AND 48 Houis POST-TREATMENT Treatment ABC-6108-II, AB(;-6108-11, ABG-6108-II, ABG-6108-II, WP W WP WP (1.5 kg/ha) ............. (1.0 kg/ha) ............. (0.5 kg/ha) ............. (0.25 kg/ha) ............ .. ..... 471F 50-58°F 58-68°F 77°F 24 hr. 48 hr. 24 hr. 48 hr. 24 hr. 48 hr. 24 hr. 48 hr. 78 73 15 33 - 94 90 45 53 - 98 78 86 41 94 100 93 94 55 99 100 97 100 93 99 96 98 0 89 74 65 45 1(X) 1() 0 1(X) 98 92 87 I(X) 1(X) 1(X) 0 Teknar (2.0 pt/a) ................. Teknar (1.0 pt/a) ........................ Teknar (0.5 pt/a) ........................ Ahate 4-E (0.5 oz/a) ..................... Control .............. ................. 0 0 95 86 87 1 99 98 93 1 98 10( 1(X) 0 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Cork spot shows up as blushed areas on the skin of apples (right), but also may extend down into the flest, of apples (left). C disoi dcis xii appics It olteii ap)jcai s a dl i blushed areas on the skin of apples abox corked spots in the flesh. The corked area mnax be located anvwhere betxveen the core and the skin. Tissues in the affected area cease to grow and the tissue biecomes much hardei than the surrounding healthy tissue. Cork spot may begin to develop as early as 14 dlays after bloom and as late as 8-10 wveeks after bloom. It does not increase after biarvest. Conditions wxhich result in large fruit, Such as high nitrogen nutrition, smnall crops, andl heavy pruning. max lead to cork spot development. \lorc coirk spot has been observecd when nitrogen wvas suppliedl as ammonium N than when nitrate N was used. It is imore severe on youing, vigorous trees with small crops than on older, heavys fruiting trees. As much as 60-70% of f-ruit can be affected. The actual cause of cork spot is not known. It is rep~orted to be related to lows calcium or low boron levels, or b)oth, in the fruit. Results (if'Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station research support these reports. An Auburn studs to determine wxhether fdliar spray s ofealcium and] boron xxoiulc affect cork spot incidence wxas begun in sp)ring 1971 at the Chilton Area Horticulture Sub~station. Treatments were applied to 9 xear-old Starkrimison Red Delicious apple trees on seedling rootstock. Four treatments were used: I.Control no treatment. TABif Foliar Spraying with Reduces Cork Spot of Apples DOZIER, JR., Department of Horticulture 0DOM, Department of Agronomy and Soils CARLTON and K C. SHORT, Chilton Area Horticulture Substation KNOWLES, Department of Horticulure 2. Two foliar sprays of boron (2 lb). Soluborg per 100 gal. of spras ) first spray (ks. al)Lplied drinig lte bloomianeiii(l oi(2 wee after petal fall. 3. Four biliai sp)rays of calcium (3 I1). of, calcium chloridepl)r 100 gal. of' spra\ ) appl ied at 2-week interv als beginning 2 weeks after petal fall. 4. Comnbi natin of the boron and calciuin treatments (treatments 2 and 3). DFCiiiIpy. TBFATsixTS ON COiK SPOi I Ii\(I1 1. Evfffl 1of Blliil%N\DC IXi i tMSpBis Fri t wxithI cork s1)ot Tranit1971 Treatin.n Av. re- 1972 Pet Pet. 14.4 7.4 7.2 1973 Pet. 1974 Pit. 7.8 1975 Pci. 18.6 1976 Pct. 17.7 5vr. a iliictioi Pct. - Pit. 15.4 Control .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Boron .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9 Calcium .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Boron + calciumn...................13.8 6.6 -- 4A .4 3.2 1(0.6 11.8 9.4 9.8 10.2 9.8 9.S 9.4 8.6 5.6 6.0 6.8 TABi, 2. EFFFi i F BOiBO, ANiD Cii CuxIFi OF ,FA\FS AM)i Fii ii OFRiii D Sriixi TiEATMTifS ON1I5 BOiiO\ %Ni CAIfi t\ i x(I\ I ioi s1SAiii,[ ~ TetntCa TetetLca\ e's B 50.2 63.6 55.1 66.6 ( frkuil Iniit Ca B 298 :327 :328 324 :39.6 68.9 45.7 78.7 Noncorkeil ImiI Ca B .307 322 327 347 4(0.6 7:3.1 -15A4 8:3.2 Conitrol...................... Boron .. . . . . . . . . . . . Calciim ......................... ... Boroin + calciuim .... 1.06 1.12 1.15 1.19 Sprays were ap~plied with a John Bean Speed SpraverO . The incidence ofcork spot wxas significantly reduced bs both bioron and calcium treatments dimne iir in combination-in all sears excelpt the first, table 1. There xxas little inicidence if the disorder in 1974 clue to the large crop that followed a no-crop year in 1973. The trees iii 1974 produced a large crop of medium size apples that were not highly susceptible to cork spot dleveloupmoent. Even so), it wxas ev ident that calcium and b~oron) treatments sup~pressed cork sp)ot desvelopment. Ov er the 6-s ear studs , the incidence of cork spout w'as reduiced 5.6 to 6.8%. This ssould amount to increasing the marketable to yield bx :3(1 40 bu. per acre on a 6() bu. per acre crop and 40-54 hu. per acre on an 800 bu. crop. In some y'ears the spras 5reduced cork spot as mnuch as 9%. Calcium and boron content in leav es, corked fruit, and noncorked fruit xxas increased by all treatments, table 2. The application of' either calcium or boron also resulted in greater accumulations of other elemients in bo1th leaves and fruiit. The greatest accumulation of calcium and boron occurred swhen the txxo nutrients svere applied in combination, reflecting the fact that bo0th calcium and boron affect the translocation (ifeach other. The incidence of cork spot was generally lowest when both elements were applied. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Adequate Irrigation at Field Boundary with Traveler Irrigation EUGENE W. ROCHESTER Department of Agricultural Engineering Field layout showing initial sprinkler positions. EFFICIENT UTILIZATION OF WATER and energy in irrigation is a necessary component of a successful system. With this requirement as a goal, research is now being conducted at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station to improve water and energy efficiency of various irrigation systems. One type of system being studied is the traveler, a system consisting of a wheeled carriage and a high volume sprinkler which is towed across the field with a cable or a hose. Recent studies have focused on water application amounts near the "start-up" position of the traveler. This is the area that receives less water because it obtains water from only a portion of the sprinkler's wetting pattern. For many years the accepted method was to start the traveler at the field boundary. With this method some water is wasted outside the field boundary and the under-irrigated zone is limited to a distance of one wetting radius in front of the sprinkler. The amount of the deficit is a function of the operating angle of the sprinkler. For example, a sprinkler operating at half circle would have no deficit in the field area while one operating at full circle would have the greatest deficit. Generally, the deficit is ignored and normal travel speed is initiated at the same time the system is pressurized. Some manufacturers of hardhose travelers are offering an initial-delay option which allows a period of stationary application before the traveler begins moving. This delay can be used to increase the amount of water applied in front of the sprinkler, but can also be used to irrigate behind the start-up position of the sprinkler. However, start-up delays will generally result in excess water being applied at some locations. The farmer must be concerned about the effects of these excesses and deficits on crop response, but he must also be concerned about the cost of pumping the unused water. A typical arrangement, see figure, includes a number of parallel lanes spaced a constant distance apart (W). This spacing is less than twice the sprinkler's wetting radius (R)so that an appropriate overlap can be achieved. Both the spacing (W) and the wetting radius (R) have an effect on the area behind the sprinkler which gets complete coverage. The maximum distance behind the sprinkler (Lmax) for which complete coverage occurs, see figure, can be computed by the following equation: Lmax = N/R2 - (W/2) 2. For example, if lanes are spaced 300 ft. apart and the sprinkler has a wetting radius of 215 ft., then the maximum distance behind the sprinkler to the end of complete coverage would be 154 ft. (Lmax). Of course, complete coverage means that only a few drops of water are applied at that location, certainly not an adequate amount. Auburn Study The Auburn study relates to whether the use of start-up delay can provide adequate irrigation behind the start-up position and what effect the delay will have on wasted water. In the evaluation, adequate irrigation was considered as 75% of the average application. Thus, if the traveler speed is set to provide a 1-in. application, then at least a 3/4-in. average application would need to be applied between lanes for that location to be considered adequately irrigated. Water applied beyond this location is considered wasted. Likewise, water applied in excess of the 1-in. average application was also considered wasted even though some of it would probably be utilized by the crop. Therefore, wasted water is the combination of water applied beyond the field boundary and excess water within the field boundary. The study evaluated start-up delays for several lane widths and sprinkler wetting angles. The delay times were determined to provide adequate irrigation amounts at various locations behind the sprinkler. The conclusions of the study confirm that an initial delay can be used to effectively increase the travel lane lengths without substantially affecting the total amount of wasted water. However, the longer initial delays will substantially increase the areas obtaining excess irrigation. 6 6Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station A~ 44 4? 4 44' ,~, 4 1 44' 1 1'4 4 1 -. 4~4 9 '4 4 11 4 '4' 4 '4 4 4,. '41 .~4 -4 4 ~ 4" - I;. oh 44 t -'.4 44 4. '~ 4, 14 '1' 1.4 '41 '~' .44' 4 Foliar Blight Cuts Vigor, Seed Yield of Some Low-tannin Sericea lo\\ taill c4444(4 it l. c 441' l HI( V\ filt itj 5 i l Ill''4 \3 it 3- it i t)i4k''l''.i p ~ a i .' 1444 So1 '444 ))I 44 1.) I4Ii 4 [ I 44444 \' I \1,\,44 ,444441,1\1 ) [ m I, \' O\ 44444)4 4'' \ (, tioli '0)(11'4.4(i4'' hoxt'x l. ill 1.1(1(1 '41424) 1444 i 11141 Lot it4lot)4 ca.4 i)'I4 (I andi~ I6444 cI)1 i (it0-i() 0 444)'' li).t4' d I 6c~s tovi44't i '6 44 '1l,11. 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HATO , ED ADM, 'w .E. HIT eatetofArnm'n ol F AM R AR~lF1%4E 'onltinuially searching the fin tlnose fields for peanuits ss itl effect of a long-term rotation. 3 hese areas include baIliagrass pastures, Coastal lberiniagriass ha\ fields, idle land, fields i ecentis cleared of, trees, and others that hat\ e not b~een plantedi i to peanutts in a long tune With this nesw land coin mg into peanut prodluction, farmers must dlecide if it is necessal s to inoculate peanut seed at planting xsvith niti ogeii fixing bacteia. A field studs was condulictedl bs the Alahaia Agricultural Experiint Station in 198(0 and 1981 on farmners' fields to detertuie benefits of inoculatint of' peanuts bs Riiu b0)ini acteria in fields has i g gone mans years swithout being planted to peanuts. Soil samples ss crc taken from each farmier's field andI the inmber of' lpeanut Rhizobia present in the soil ssas counted. Treatments included (1) check, in) inocui or fertilizer, (2) .5(111), per acre of nitroli gei as am mon iu m nitriate. aid 3 ) inocu hiin 1(1 drilledl into the seed finrowN at 15 lb). pei acre at planting onls 5 lb). is recommiendedl). iseds to ensure more Fifteen pouinds 55cr 1 than enou gh inoculuii on a lI sodls. No pes ticides wsere applied at planitinig in ordler to av oidl any potential injmirs to the Rhizobizim. Two experiments were liars este(I in 1980, both on Bill IDelones s farm in Dale Counts. One exp~eriiieint w5as omita11ucy loamy sand that had 1been in bahiagras s for the past 1t) years. 'fh other exp~eriinent ssvas o0 an Alta V ista fine sands loam., ss hch had been cleared from natisve hardwsood trees in 1978 aind planted to soybleanis in 1979. These past histories resulted in s erv low Rhizobia pop~ulations, which should have fovored the iieed for peanut inoculation. However, yields antI grades in both experiments were just as good without inoculation as they were with it. Four exp~eriments w5ere coinduicted on fainers'fields in 1981. One ss its oi aDlothan loam\isan it i) D~ale Counts thiat had iiot been cropped for the past 2(0 s\carss It sf0155 ed eluipinent. rapid sime groswth and plant (Its (sscrc in)leaf or stein (diseases, and Theme eie vields \As ahout 4.000 lb)pei acire. There was no syieldl or grade increase resulting fromn inoculuii. coinduicted on at A second experiment ssias tamyS sand that had( Ibeen cleared Trou loP s%,ias fromt inat trees in 1980. Th erie excelis'e lent sii c gross th throu ghut thle growsin g season. There ss no yield 0I ginade inicirease as fromt either the inoculation tomnitirogen fe~rt iIizetr. A\third experiment sias oit ImicN lains cirops saind that had( ilot been plan ted to rossv siince 1945. The field wsas isolated fr oii othei fields b,, trees. The plants gi ess Sreriapilys until tlies had lapped in the middles. ields wsere abouit 4,000 1). per acre wsith mo iicmrease in 5 ield or grade fromn iiiu liin or introgeii firtilizer. The fourth experiment was on at Red Bas loamy sand that had not been planted to at p)1liines ross crop since 1952. Tssents -yeai-l were hai sestedI in 1978. Peanuits w5eire planted the last sseek in \la\, antI plants erxiapidls and wsere lapped bs Angrews Sr gu st 1. Yields of ab ou t 4,000 11). per atcre showed no ii ncrease due to inoculation oi nitrogen fertilizer. Rh izobia itumbi ers in these soils irangedl From 6 to 1,:311( per grain, wshich are s ers low popu lation s. Fields ss here peanuts are gross ni regmilarls ssill hasve hundreds of thousands o)1 Ilhizobia per gramn of' soil. These exp~erimeints shossed that esven the s ers loss numbers of Rhizobia present in these soils were enough to prosvidle effective nodulation and maximum 'yield and SM K (sound mature kernels). The falilure of nitrogen fertilizer to increase yields also supports this conclusion. These expermnentIs show no ineed hor iiioculating peanits in Alabaina, even undei conditions swhere its need would appear to be most likles YillIA) AND)GRAMO~ 501 FLOWIH NN' PFtNI ISI, 1s1,- I Ni11o\ !'5iITIMIsI :osintv grim yr tpc So Ii D~othian lied II I a1ic\ lo 11ii1: 5 iIl( IDalc-Deatl Bros. Pike I Iarilen itl Sons Rhizobia per grain soil No. I 300 -190) 32 12 11 6 Per acre 1(1(1 Lb.)0 3.930 4,170 4,040 4,190 2,000 2,91(0 1 'M K 76 7-9 75 74 74 Pike-R andu B. Price llenr, Di )le C. Trassick B. DI iles Trotp loalil sailt 1 Alta Vi1sta1 IDale B. lDeloney line sanii loitm Lotes Ioaios sand 71 Alabma Ag-riciiltn cal Experimecnt S tation CONSIDERABLE CHANGE has occurred in the pattern of land ownership in the United States and Alabama. The nature of this change has not been clearly documented and understood, especially at the state level. To provide current information on ownership of farmlands, the Economics, Statistics and Cooperative Service (ESCS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture conducted a national Landownership Survey in 1978. Primary data obtained were made available to Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station researchers. Survey results reveal that about 1.35 billion acres of land in the United States is owned by private individuals or organizations. This accounts for 58% of all land. Farm and ranch lands represent 69% of all privately owned lands (approximately 938 million acres). Alabama has about 14.85 million acres of this farmland held in more than 235,000 ownership units or land parcels. These ownership units are not farms, however, as many farm operations combine multiple ownership units. Form of Private Farmland Ownership The most prevalent type owners in Alabama are sole proprietors who hold 42% of the farm and ranch units amounting to 45%of the land or 6.6 million acres. Families represent another 35% of all farm and ranch units and 34% of the acreage. Almost all the remainder ofAlabama's private farmland is held as partnership units, family 13% and nonfamily 2%, and corporations, family 2% and non-family 3%. Compared to the United States, Alabama has a larger proportion of its farm acreage owned by individuals or families, 93%, compared to 90% for the United States. These farmland units exclude forest lands and do not reflect the large tracts of such lands owned by corporations throughout the State and Nation. Size of Farmland Holdings In focusing on farm and ranch ownership units, an interesting inverse relationship is seen between the proportion of owners and. the size of land holdings. Ownership units of less than 10 acres account for 41% of the owners but only slightly more than 2% of the acreage, see figure. On the other hand, 7.3% of the owners control 54% of the farmland in units larger than 180 acres. Pronounced differences exist between Alabama and the Nation. Only 29% of U.S. farmland is in units smaller than 10 acres. Ownership units of less than 100 acres represent only 13% of all U.S. farmland. Comparable Alabama percentages for these smaller units are 30% higher than those for the United States. How did ownership of Alabama's farmland come about? As might be anticipated, the most common way was through direct purchase from unrelated individuals. More than half of the privately owned acreage, 54%, was obtained in this way. Inheritance accounted for the next largest proportion at 24%. Another 19% of the farmland was purchased from relatives. Patterns of acquisition tended to be similar across the United States in this regard. Nationally, slightly fewer acres were acquired through inheritance when compared to Alabama. Characteristics of Owners The vast majority of owners of Alabama farmland, 93%, live in the county where the property is located. These individuals control 81% of the privately owned acreage. Another 4% of the owners live in another Alabama county. Alabama has a higher proportion of local, within county ownership than exists in the United States, 84%. Many owners of farmland units are elderly. Over one-fourth, 28%, of the ownership units in Alabama are held by persons 65 years of age or older. Acreage controlled by persons in this age group represents onethird, 34%, of all farmland. This proportion is 4% larger than that for the United States. Conversely, persons younger-than 45 years of age hold 24% of the ownership units and 15% of the acreage. Both percentages are smaller than those for the United States. The widespread practice of renting and leasing farmland in Alabama is vividly portrayed. Only 15% of the ownership units are held by persons identifying their principal occupation as a farmer. These individuals own 28% of the farm acreage in the State. Retired persons own 27% of the units and an equal proportion of the acreage. Some of these were probably farmers prior to retirement. Still, the majority of farmland owners are involved in nonfarm occupations. White collar professionals, managers, and administrators owned 9% of the ownership units and 18% of the acreage. Blue collar workers represent the largest proportion of units, 45%, but they hold only 19% of the acreage. Farmers control 10% fewer ownership units in Alabama than is true for all United States farmers. Marked acreage differences exist also. Farmers across the United States own 51% of the farmland as compared to Alabama's 28%. Retirees in the United States hold 11% less land than in Alabama and nonfarmers 16% less. Ownership of Alabama farmland varies from the United States as a whole. These differences need to be considered by local, state, and national leaders as programs relating to agriculture are debated and implemented. The fact that many tracts of farmland and considerable acreage are owned by nonfarm operators in Alabama is significant. These owners may be less responsive to market conditions and price-cost factors. Ultimately, it is the landowners who hold the key to continued development of agriculture and its success in meeting future domestic and international food needs. J.E. DUNKELBERGER and J.L. ADRIAN Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Broiler Litter in Finishing Ration Reduces Beef Feeding Cost ELVIN E. THOMAS, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences JOHN T. EASON, Sand Mountain Substation GERALD W. TURNBULL, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences steers fed the broiler litter ration. Comparison of the amount of feed required per unit of live weight gained also suggests that the protein in broiler litter may be utilized slightly less efficiently than that of urea and soybean meal. Growth rate over the entire 130-day trial, however, was similar regardless of the source of supplemental nitrogen. Close similarity in performance of all groups over the entire trial was expected due to the decline in protein requirement as steers reached heavier weights. As cattle approach finished weights, the composition oflive weight gain changes from one oflargely protein in the light weight animal to that of a greater percentage of fat and less protein in the heavier animal. This decline in protein requirement, along with the greater capacity for microbial protein synthesis in the rumen, allows nitrogen sources such as urea and broiler litter to support weight gains equal to those made by cattle fed soybean meal. Using Litter Cuts Feed Cost A LABAMA'S BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY has traditionally consisted largely of cow-calf production units, with most calves sold at weaning to feedlot operators in the West and Midwest. A smaller number of calves remain in Alabama following weaning to be fed further in either stockering or feedlot programs. The relatively small number of cattle entering feedlots is largely due to Alabama being a grain deficient state. The high cost of purchased grains has restricted the potential profit margin from cattle feeding programs. Interest in Cattle Feeding Recently, however, there has b6"en interest in finishing cattle by using grains such as wheat or milo, which can be economically grown in Alabama, supplemented with broiler litter to replace corn. Broiler litter is of particular interest as an economical replacement for soybean meal, cottonseed meal, or urea, since there is an abundant supply and the cost is relatively low. Cattle can utilize ingredients such as litter since the rumen has a large microbial population capable of digesting nitrogen-containing dietary components and synthesizing high quality protein. For this to be successful, however, the diet must be formulated to provide the essential nutrients needed by the microbial population for maximum bacterial growth and digestion of dietary components. Research Shows Value of Chicken Litter Recent Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station tests at the Sand Mountain Substation, Crossville, have shown that broiler litter can be used to good advantage to replace soybean meal or urea as a protein source in rations for cattle heavier than 700 lb. The low cost of broiler litter gives a potential profit advantage over feeding rations made with traditional protein supplements. Crossbred steers ofAngus, Hereford, or Angus x Hereford breeding that weighed an average of 585 lb. were used in the experiment. Sixteen steers (8 per pen) were randomly assigned to either a corn silage-corn grain basal diet or to the diet supplemented with either urea, broiler litter, or soybean meal. All diets were calculated to contain an equal amount of usable energy and 11.4% crude protein, except the unsupplemented basal diet which contained 8.3% protein, table 1. The unground broiler litter was stored in a covered, deep stack for at least 10 to 14 days before feeding so the heat offermentation could destroy many ofthe pathogenic organisms that may be present in the litter. It was incorporated into the complete diet without grinding at time of feeding. Grinding is generally undesirable because it causes excess dustiness and a fine texture that may decrease feed intake. During the initial 56 days of the trial, supplementation of the basal diet with all the sources of protein increased cattle weight gains and feed efficiency, table 2. Daily gains by the steers fed urea and soybean meal were similar and slightly higher than gains made by Results of this study suggest that the nitrogen in broiler litter may be of less value than that from either urea or soybean meal when fed to light weight cattle. With cattle weighing 700 lb. or more, however, equal performance can be expected regardless of the protein source. The inclusion of low cost litter in cattle diets greatly reduces feed costs, thereby increasing the profit potential. Cost per pound of gain and dollar return per steer over feed costs greatly favors the inclusion of broiler litter in rations for finishing cattle. TABLE 1. COMPOSITION OF TEST DIETS (As-FED BASIS) IngredientiContent, test ration by Basal Urea Litter Pct. Pct. Pct. 46.8 46.9 46.6 Corn silage .......... 39.4 34.0 39.2 Cracked corn ........ Cottonseed hulls 12.1 11.4 7.7 Soybean meal .........11.0 Broiler litter ......... --Urea ................ -.9 .7 -.7 Dicalcium phosphate .. Limestone ........... .5 .5 .4 Dynamate® .......... .4 .4 -.3 .3 .3 Salt, T.M ............. Cost per ton 2 . . . . . . .. . $89 $90 $73 Soybea Pct. 46.8 34.7 12.1 4.7 .6 .5 .3 .3 $95 'Broiler litter contains (dry matter basis) 78-90% dry matter, 50-55% total digestible nutrients (TDN), 2% calcium, 1.6% phosphorus, and 18-30% protein equivalent. Approximately 50-75% of the crude protein is natural protein, and the balance is nonprotein-nitrogen in the form of ammonia or uric acid. 2 $279/ton; cottonseed hulls, $156/ton; broiler litter, $10/ton; corn silage, $25/ton; and urea, $260/ton. OF TABLE 2. SUMMARY FEEDLOT PERFORMANCE Costs of individual ingredients were: corn, $3.83/bu.; soybean meal, Performance Ration item Initial 56 days Starting weight, lb. Feed consumed/day, lb. Basal 589 31.0 Urea 609 36.9 Litter 584 35.4 Soyean 609 36.7 Feed/lb. gain, lb...... . 14.8 Entire 130 days Final weight, lb ...... 862 Feed consumed/day, lb Feed/lb. gain, lb...... . Feed cost/lb. gain' . ... 13.7 914 38.3 16.7 75¢ 14.2 880 38.3 16.7 61 13.1 912 38.1 16.6 79¢ 33.0 15.7 70¢ ¢ 'Based on feed costs given in table 1. 10 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station .5 Is I. ~* *I* I )n -H 1 ,tr~ Lu> Aerial Seeding for Ryegrass-Soybeans Double Cropping R.R. HARRIS, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences N.R. McDANIEL and E.L. CARDEN, Gulf Coast Substation A lo-scddu resear RI L SE ) )ING A obecopn.mc rxregrarss inlto so\h~i~ ben (ol (Ill rIce eest I 55I-cop ,,,e IIs beenl ch (luring siiccissiil it) A~lbamai Agriciulturral Esperrlrrriit Srtatlion 2 %eairs at the ( ;idf ( ast Siubstationr Fitrliuj)( Good Soybeans, Early Grazing Sciirg I-\ grass aheadl of siis luair liark,est has alliissed faork earkI stinking.of w5inlter pastures dlii pro idcd~ goodu~rate oif gin arid ighj beef p~rodufctrionr)Il acre. So\ beian rid has beenu Lgod. too-- 26 b)11 per actrc ill 1979 adl 34 1)11 ill 19S(1 A Iurricanec Fredleric hit thre arid Se(ptember 11 1979, 55 ii undoubillil tedl Is d aged thll 1979 crop) ) Il)ul riug the 2- e stud\ siis ien-is \N(-re planted (li lg late-June iar adi harkX csteili cdal No\ emr.~- Seeding of' rA egrass wsas dune aboout :30) das beor so\ni-bean r ilu cst. After cattle kvcrc rciiiiiii eeaiu5d illi iiiilll (66 11). eac-h) iii late 1-ibriars and late Mlarch. Preerier eniimherbiicideus were iusid each \ear toi ciintriil xxniis ill 5i)5hielis. Eights\ pounds of' I- grass sneedkir po-t- ouil hx. aircraft iin earls Octiiber. Ifiallf as pit ru ii) Huediir-ectrirr arid half'alplliedlperpeii dici lar tiithei first applicatin. lThe r er -ass seedh ss i applied while moilsti ftire so hr-an Iea\ eskssere stilluoil thre pliaits, so the Ica\ (s acted ats cuse to InI tarir soul ioirstirre dliii heilpedi thle I segilss Sied veri unate Ryegrass Established at Soybean Harvest SOs Icjl hnarlarsvest occu rred applriiliniatni 3(0 (las after aerial app~licatlion of ti- is egr ass seed. Therefor e the r-\ egrass seedlings oit were well e stalis1hed at sirs bean~ hark e st . U..se st rass, spr eader onl the coine is cioirsidiered desirable. i Once thre pllant cariups was reruns ed. the rs egrass plants grews rapidly. 'lir segrass sxas asvailable for grazring l\is id- l)ecernher, brut the bl k of its growssth ssas produced duin iii rriar%. March, )g Stoi cke r cattl weIigh inig 6(1(-7(X) . liiiiit-grazed tihe 25 acre test panstiure (firg I )rcciniurr anrd januarN Thes grazed ciolltrriliiitrsl\ frorn iiiid iF(lliiiar urnrtil late \las. Rs egiass is air excellent ujuralits fiorage crop, ats es idenceed b\ performi an ce-id gra/lrig steers gisven III the talde. Tiotal gain per acr e averaged 488 arid 6.53 pouinds, restpectil\ ,lduring th~e 1979-80 and 19801 81 grazIing seasons. Asverage daily gain was 1.59 arid 2.77 1b., respectis ely. i irlri grazing, remaining rs(gxs goodii 5iecllbed preparedI hi- tihe fi)1loii rg so)ybe~an ci op. \lrrural fertilizer andni we- ursedl accoirdinig tii suil sire test r commini-rnations. d uCnmplete fert ilizer wxas applliedI Iino iat (I l fiiluo~in~rg sois ear) liars(st, 5xitli addlitiial app~licatioin iii ir igi-r RE, ,,, F ~,k'ii Sm55, GI i+ ( ki [I,rus (sopisSry FN(i) S llSm, 1979-SI tcm Perforancc Rs'egrass data Rsiult, In 1979-80) 5eir 1980) s Didtr Sieeded D~ate t~razinrg blial) .. .. . .. . . .. . .. . . 1/10/79 1/31/8(0 I ati t~raz-ii CTRICli ........ l (.ain/c d e 1n .i . ) . . . . . . . . vragi- darikts ain, 11) . . . . . . * . (.ritznr lid~s/acre . .. . . .. .. 5/26/801 I8 It)/I4/8(0 12715/80t Cattle Performance Good Cattle per ifurmandice ii the i-segrass is aibiut itypical for cool seasoln annual pastuiires5 grin under a sin gle-croppin g ssysteim, and( ce rtainIVjustif'ies tis (lurle cropping sequience. A realistic cost fur prodlucing air acreiiithis t, pe forage would he $ I(M,1ss-hich wsould mlake co~st of' galin abou t 2(0 i 25c per pound. Results front11 the tssoi completed tests arid at third iii progress indicate that soybeans followed hy aeriallIy-seeded r egrass is a practical method uif' increasing produictivity fromn giood land. 5/1S880 653 277 2.35 1.59 :306 king rate, steers/acre Soybean data I )tc plan ted . . . . . . . . . .. IDatc harstsed .. . .. . . .. . . Stun I... .80 6/19/79 116/79 26 1 53 6/301/811 II /I /80 314 Yireld br.a .acre .. .. . .. . Alalauiu Agricultuiral ExpeCrimenOt Station What Farmers Can Do To Reduce Costs J.H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Increased Costs Inflation and rather rapidly rising farm costs have been major factors contributing to the farmer's presently poor financial situation. From 1979 to 1980, interest on the farm mortgage debt paid by Alabama farmers increased 20.3%, see table. Repairs and operation of capital items increased 18.3%, while the cost of seed, fertilizer, and lime increased slightly more than 15%. These increased operating costs coupled with relatively low crop and livestock prices as a result of large production and supplies on hand have re suited in a real financial hardship for farmers. This situation is best illustrated by the proportion farm expenses have taken out of farm income in the past several years. In 1978 in Alabama, farm expenses were 79.5% of farm income, in 1979 they were 82.3% offarm income and in 1980, because of the drought and other economic forces, expenses were 99.6% of farm income. This vividly illustrates the cash flow problem farmers face, not only in meeting expenses but in family living and debt repayment. What Can Be Done? Each farm situation is different and no "best" set of actions can be given for all cases. Many farmers strive to hold machinery costs down by holding off on buying farm machinery and equipment. From an income tax standpoint, investment credit and accelerated depreciation are not needed when farm income is down. In many cases, additional years of use can be made of existing farm machinery and equipment. Part-time labor may be cheaper than more or bigger machinery in striving for timeliness. Consider repairing rather than replacing machinery and equipment or buying used instead of new items. The hiring of custom operations for spreading fertilizer or harvesting crops may also be a more affordable alternative than buying new equipment. Also, if you have excess labor, power, and equipment, consider doing work for others. Some investments other than in machinery and equipment may also be postponed. These may include farm service buildings, irrigation systems, and silos or grain bins. It may be possible to cut costs and improve cash flow in both crop and livestock production practices. Soil testing continues to be a must. There is no point in applying certain fertilizer elements to fields where they are not needed. It may also be possible to reduce herbicide costs by changing herbicide material used or method of application. The same is true for insect control measures. For some crops, seeding rates may be cut without a reduction in yield. For both crops and livestock, do a better job of buying inputs such as fertilizer, insecticides, herbicides, feeds, and supplies. For livestock, monitor feed consumption and reduce feedwastage. Culling of certain animals may be in order. Some farmers may be able to make fuller use of their land resource by more double cropping. This aids in spreading fixed costs and reducing per unit of production costs but increases per acre costs. Analyze the costs and returns for the crop and livestock enterprises you now have. Some adjustments may be in order to reduce out-of-pocket costs and to change risks incurred. Care should be taken in cutting costs so that total income is not reduced more than costs. Now is also a time for farmers to look at their marketing strategies and plans and to exercise prudence in the use of borrowed capital to minimize interest costs. Better overall management, with particular emphasis on improved financial management, is the key to overcoming the problems farmers face today and in the immediate future. PRODUCTION EXPENSES INCURRED BYALABAMA FARMERS ANY FARMERS, as well as other business operators, are facing serious financial problems. There are numerous factors affecting farm finances and each farm situation is different. For these reasons farmers need to thoroughly analyze their situation, make the best decisions possible, and act in an attempt to overcome the problems. It is important to understand the farm financial situation from the standpoint of assets and claims as well as income flows and costs. Assets and Liabilities For many years farmers have substituted capital for labor. They have bought more and bigger machines, purchased more chemicals and nonfarm-produced inputs, and expanded by adding additional acreage to their operations. In some cases additional acres were purchased and in others they were rented. Attempts were made to increase volume of business and become more efficient. Generally, the objective to be achieved through expansion was to lower per unit production costs. Continued inflation, higher interest rates, and several other economic forces have worked against farmers catching them in a cash flow squeeze. Increases in farm real estate values have slowed in the past year and the farmer's equity position has increased less than in previous years. In the past, increasing equity made it possible to borrow additional funds and continue the cycle of increased investment and expansion. As an average, Alabama farmers remain in a rather strong position from the standpoint of total assets to total claims. As of January 1, 1981, the last year for which asset and liability data are available for all Alabama farms, total assets were six times total liabilities. This was a good ratio, but the distribution of assets and liabilities is what is important in so many cases. About 79% of the total assets of Alabama farmers is in farm real estate, or fixed assets. Such assets are not normally sold to meet financial obligations. Assets in terms of crops and livestock that are normally marketed are important in meeting the financial obligations when they become due. M Item Feed ......... Livestock...... Seed .......... 1979 1980 Change Pct. Mil. dol. Mil. dol. 454.8 101.0 67.7 456.2 103.4 77.9 120.7 234.8 .3 2.4 15.1 15.1 18.3 Fertilizer and Repairs and lime.........104.9 operations ... 198.4 Hired labor .... 86.8 97.9 12.8 Depreciation ... 280.9 302.1 7.5 Taxes (property) 13.0 Interest on mortgage debt 83.2 25.4 Net rent ...... Miscellaneous .. 359.6 1,775.7 Total .......... Source: ERS, USDA 13.6 100.1 20.9 388.0 1,915.6 4.6 20.3 -17.7 7.9 7.9 12 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 41 0 A ROUGH EGGSHELL texture condition known as "pimpling" is of major concern to commercial egg producers. These pimpled eggs, so named because of the calcareous deposits protruding through or adhering to the shell surface, have the potential to be leakers and can result in a large economic loss to the poultry industry. There appears to be at least two types of pimples. The surface type consists of various sizes of deposits on the exterior surface of the shell. If these pimples are removed there is no damage to the integrity of the shell. The second type, however, is attached to the egg anywhere between the shell membrane and the exterior surface of the shell, and can be easily broken, creating possible leakers. It is believed the pimpling condition is caused by foreign material in the oviduct which adheres to the shell during the calcification process. This phenomenon increases as the hen ages causing greater losses in older flocks. It has been suggested that the continuous use of the oviduct, with possible increased fragmentation and sloughing of cells, may explain the increase in pimples as the hen ages. Recent reports in popular press have also suggested that rough or abnormal shell texture may be influenced by the diet, including excessive use of antibiotics, excess calcium, and excessive or deficient levels of phosphorus. There has been some indication that the addition of sodium bicarbonate to the diet had a beneficial effect on reducing eggshell pimpling but the results were inconclusive. The objectives of these studies were to evaluate some of the more recent untested hypotheses that have been suggested to have been an influence on the severity ofpimpling. LEFT: Eggs with both types of pimples. The larger pimples are more easily broken off. RIGHT: The result of a pimple being broken off of the egg. If the shell membrane adheres to the shell a "leaker" results. Eight experiments were conducted utilizing a total of 31,460 single comb White Leghorn hens of various ages. In Experiment 1 through 4, treatments consisted of calcium levels ranging from .09 to 5.5%, phosphorus .32 or 1.0%, sodium bicarbonate .25%, chlortetracycline .55 g/kg of diet, and vitaminmineral premix added to the diet at 1.5 times the control level. In Experiment 5, hens were fed diets containing 3.5, 3.75, or 4.5% calcium for the first 11 months of production. In Experiment 6, hens were housed 1 or 3 per cage and received either a 15- or 18-hour photoperiod. In Experiments 7 and 8 hens were force molted using a typical commercial type feed and water restriction program and kept for a second laying period. The low calcium treatments, fed for 6 to 10 days, significantly lowered the average pimpling scores in two of three experiments, but the pimpling score increased to control levels immediately after the calcium levels were restored. It was hypothesized that by quickly reducing the hens' supply of calcium, the calcareous-like fragments in the oviduct would be reduced (mobilized) resulting in a decrease in pimpling. However, this did not prove to be successful for more than a 2- or 3-week period and would, therefore, have no practical application. Even though improvement was obtained by feeding low levels of calcium for short periods of time, various higher levels of calcium when fed for both short or long periods had no influence on pimpling. This suggests that higher levels of calcium are not involved in pimpling. Treatments of 5.5% calcium, high or low phosphorus, chlortetracycline, sodium bicarbonate, or excess vitamin-mineral premix had no influence on pimpling. There was however a significant increase in pimpling with hen age with all three calcium levels (3.5, 3.75, or 4.5%). Eggs with severe pimpling had significantly lower specific gravity (shell quality) when compared to eggs with less pimpling. Force molting significantly reduced the incidence of eggshell pimpling for at least 6 months; however, the incidence ofpimpling appeared to gradually increase during the postmolt period similar to that which would be expected during a bird's first year of lay. It was concluded that force molting can be successfully used to reduce the severity of eggshell pimpling; however, this management procedure may not be economically feasible in all cases. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station MARGARET CRAG-SCHMIDT, SAM A FAIROLOTH, CHI \(ING WU Department of Home Economics Research JOHN D. WEETE, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology PATRICIA TEER, Department of Pathology and Parasitology, School of Veterinary Medicine Diet I EFAD 10 /HCO Diet UI Control I%/HCO + 10%/SBO 0 Diet XI EFAD l1 0 /HCO 11 weeks). Birds fed experimental diets Age The Chicken: A REENTSTU DY conduictedl hx) re- Can it be used as a perimient Station hits conifirined at1963 stiudy at Cornell t nixersitx wxhich reportedl that chickens led atdiet deificienit inl essential latty acids dieveloped respiratorx disease. The Ailhorn study hats extended the Cornell re[port inl all attempt to use the chickeii for ilixestigatitig the relationship bietween dietarx, essential I'attx, acids and rexpiratorx disease. In recent \ ears, this xxork has, hecen cited b\ medical ntix estigators inl suippor t of the theory that loxx amounts 1)1 essential fatty acids seen TBE1. \ikjoi Fvrn ins i\ SF mlionD 'It Ht (:iii KENsFiti ltssixiimi F' A(n iinDF Ami) (oilioB I)Ii rSFORi WEEKt,* 11 ~A Fatl\ acidis Palmilic acid Paliieiic acid Ol)'caid Linohtit acid ... -3i 14 2'-1 2 .0'-1.4 3 3.34 0.7-0.4 8. -I1 4 ni (I 'Freal inen I it[1 I)e I iS V'- 1.5 16.1 - 1A 0.5-0. 1 6.4'- 1.6 10. 6'2.5 41.7'-2.7 31,2-3.6 :30 -1.5 nild 12 6-1 9 77 -lV 0. 2-0,02 acid ... Arachidlnki anti *V\alticx are giveii as PerIcin oif' total lattx\ acids _- 1) S * *nd - no dtl'ectalie. (t TFhese fittxv acids, which most he xnpplied in the diet, are the precnrsors of a grmnp Of coiipouinds called prostaglandinx. These compounds are necessarx for the normal flinctioningof the body. Abnormal p~atte'rns of prtostaglandins in 1b100( of patieiitxwith cx xtic fibrosis have been observ ed. TFhe expeimn 1001 ixs detsignedt tio invs tigate the relationlship) 1 etxxC tnCx xlt'nial fatlx acids lx the dilet, rotaglanins, andt ri i aa tom\ x(ixtase. Sixtx (alax(1( chickenx xxte clix ided in to I Iiree grou px and fl tine of thr, e ed diets.'lieifat in I )iet wIvs/ 11 xtIri Itinal id x coionuit oil (10), at fat Muchel containis no) exxential fatt acidx. 1i' Ix scnilti colitainilig 10% sos lc'il oil (SOLo ax, iiiurc if'xSSClitial fattx acids, pis 114(1O ((I)iet Ill I ciontainedl lick IIC( the saiit aiiioiit oif' total fat atsinl the conitrol ldit At the iid of 5 antI 8 xweeks of age, tIn cc birds I ri each of' x the three Lgi11) \Nip kled t 11 \Neks ofl xxii xx age, six birdx in Groiip 1, ine iiiCou 1 Ianld fix C il G;roup Il1 xxiii killed. \loitalit\ alter the second xxcek xxas 12% for Gioup 11biirds, ciii) Iarcd to 42% an 40(/ iln hi rdx fItd tIhi esse'n tiail fatt)x acid def icitent dits A and (111)1. G;rowAth of'chickens feCd iits I aiid Ill x\ias Itess than that of1bi rds fi 't I)iet 11. Thiis poo r griowxth wAas (Inc( in part, to (litrease 1 lii d in taksx ( Iiieral appiearancei of' b irdls inl thle Ixi2. PiiiisTA(.I \\ i1\ PHOii ( FD B) L(5V a (uim Kvss Fvo iss'KiI ouixi )iA( in )uu x~i , Foi I I Wii , xxi) ( N\THii Dji Prostiaglaninii Prostaglanicn F2. Ttirnhox~nanc B) 6-kn toi isti detficien t griips xs'as p~ioorer than iii the (' oiltro roup (secc photW aind seu'ial (lextlop1(1 in('nt was delaxyed as ('5idemiced 1)x combl~ roixx ti and( te'xtes size. Scruiit laltt acidls lor groups I aiid Ill xxcrc coinsistenit xxithi that iiriualx se'en inl essential f'it tx acid dteiciln dx . As sh~ownii i talei I, the tl(f cieit chickenis shoxxetd inicrease s iii pailillitt leic acid, oleic acid, antI 'icosuatrienoic acid bu t detcreases inl Ii noltic. aicid ainid at achitlon ic acid coolparedl toi (rou ((il I lii' pi oduactitoil bx the inig of Iou r pi ostaglanins 'A ax measured As shiowxn inl table 2, 1 pirodut ction bx, the li igkxxas fiiund to bc' xi gii icaii tI xdecreased iii tisxxsles ob1tained it II wxee'ks iii bo1th esset'ild lattx aicidl deftli en t.Dioups A andt 111) xwhe'n comipared to) tlit control groupl (11)I. Similar results xxen' Obtai nell for the 5 antI 8 xxeek s samuuples Pathuological t'xaminiation ol lnng tissue at I I xxe'tk s iindlicatie'd tha~t chric01I respi -It- do5111 1 (iase xxas miore prt'x lco ant moreii st'svtre il the defi'it Groupiij I chicetns. lRtsutlts iil this xliidx in dicatie that chictkens fell an essenial flattx acidl deficient (liet lhis\ t Iii li i'r in0rt alit x lowe't'red pri st ag iiidin lexils, aiid a greater incidlene' of Iiiig dise'asi than ch ickenis It'llt adie't su pplemeni~te'd xxithI essential Iattx acids. These udixci xatinis amre c'onisi sten t xxi tli thei tliieorx that abnoiniialkl low levels of' e'sxs'ntial fattx acids inl cy stic f'mi(o515 IlatielIlS inavi he related to the'ir stiscepi'l1it x to hIng dlise'ase. ( )i1o,oisci ('Ilanex lixxi ' I, still e'xists that iiee'ds to ib' re'soldxed bx Ilturi' resiearich. Prostaglandini F2 , has been found inl increased It'se i'l i the bldoodl ill cx'she fillro sis pat iet's, xxher1eas this prostilagil inl linog xsas c inl patients with cx stic fibrosis mnax le related to their siisce[ptib~ility to llii4 infectionl. Cys'tle fibrosms, at tenetic disease, is the itiost coniilonl catixe of, lilt-thrneateliing pil Diet I )Ct 11 D~iet Ill 5 2'-l1hf 9 2 -- 5 1 nionarN di xeaxe inl ch i lhoiod andI adolesen mce iii the U nited States. Because of a (lecreasedl abilitv to absorb ft child~renl wxith cx xtic' IiI in lx hav e lox )11 blod lex els iii thc e in tial fatty acids, Iincideic acid and(arach idh (i acitl] ,.1"- 15 1551 12 118' -147 3S.1-5.1 vlandin Fjn Prosiavanin F 8,3 -3(1 207'' 1,9 5 9'-2 6 6 1)--4.2 21 'P-3I1 9 5"- 1 2 lbhi rixi arch wxaxfunded in part 1)x ( xxl Fibrosis Foundation Grant No. (,311(. *Valuits iiit( u inn as iianiiolraos p111 i~raiii of' tisxui S.E\I. \IAlauis in thc sinw ioxx sxuth iffeirnt suiperxi rmls~il(ifiifvuiit P< 0 .5 uts Icstit(I )5 IDiiiitn's NI ulluplc Ranige li'st. t( essenxi))t ial f'attx acid detficient chmckt'n. s )iff'ri'nd's max exist liolxxecun prot~satlaniii [notiictiiiilfix tlit' In1ig coli parei'l to ft bl ood . Alsxo, the' iiiaigi nal 'sst'i 1 tial lattx aCill llehct'ncx\ iii cx stic fibroms patieiit s ii ax hasc a i fit'ru nt iresuill thi that it causexid lix tI n' ltarlx detficietnt state inl tlit e'xperimen'iital hi rls Crt',Cix(ll ii Alabamuua . Xgricultu ral Experiment Station T HE QI.. ALITY and flav or of milk cannot lbe imuproxved after it leases the dairy farm. Milk quality deteriorates wxith age and( max reach the point that consumers raise serious objections. Good quiality raw milk is free of nfl flav ors, has a low somatic cell and bacterial content, and is practicallv free of bacteria that grow at refrigeration temperatures. Grade A standards for raws milk in Alabama require that the bactemrial content (lotes niot exceed LO,000/ml on the farm and :300,000/ ml alter being coimmigled wvith milk front other producers in the tank truck (1u1rinI g hauling or in the raw milk storage tank at the p)rocdessing plant. Although these bacterial lev els ar(' the legal maximum limits, the bacterial qualitv of raw milk should lb' well b~elow these limits. A surxvey was cond~ucted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Statitn dunrin g 19719 to 1981 to determine the bacterial qJuality of raw milk delixvered tto six Alabama dairy plants. Milk at each p~lant witas sampled three timles during this period. Mx samples %ve(i( ilk obltained from farm) bul1k tanks, from tank trucks at time of clelix ers' to the plant, and fromn the mrilk plant storage tanks at the timn( of' processing. The bacterial quality of the milk samples wxas determined by the standard p~late' count (S PC) and the preliminarx incubation count PII), a cotint made on the sampile folowing incuibatiuii at 13'C (55'F) f'or 18 hours. P1I counts are based on the p)remiise' that bacteria in milk originating in the udder wxill riot grow at 1.3'C, while bacteria that gaiii entrance to the milk through containation from the teat cups, pipelines, etc., wxill growx at 1.3'C. Thus the II1 ctuint xwill indicate the extent of contamination of the milk duiring haiidling. Bacterial Quality of Alabama Raw Milk R.Y. CANNON, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences Milk of excellent qutality wxill hasve bacteril SPC's below If)()()0/mul and P1I couit below 20,000/ml. The di strib ution of' bacterial coun ts obtained on the raxx milk samples from the produtcer farm tanks, tank trucks, and plant sturage tank is shoxwnm in table 1. These results indicate that the raws milk going to processing p~lants can) be iimproved( iii termis of bactem mal quialitx. Onlx 48% of the milk at the farm xxits in th(' excellent range based on the SP(' and 17% xwas rated excellent lx the P1I count. As milk xwas transported from the farmn to the processing plants, the bacterial qiiality of' the milk deteriorated, with 50%q of the tank truck and storage tank samnples Iax ing SIP('s ovedr lOO,000/mil and 8(0% aud 90% of' the samles haxving III cotints over 100,0K/ml. T[his dleterioration of bacterial qulalitx (miriiig trainsport from the farm to thre plant is also shoxvn in table 2. Since prodluc'er samp~les were niot axvailable from all tank trucks ireceived at the processing plants, the results in table 2 include only those tank trucks for which prodlucer samples xwere available. The 10-fold increase in both SPC and P1I counts from the farmi taiik to the tank truck is excessixve and indicates poor saijitars piractice(s (duir ing the p~ic'kup operation. Similatlx , the increases in SP(' aiid III counts of' the milk 1 ABI.I 1)iSTR~I[U 01 1Wis 111 km~5 IIiwl) k1 That, along with good cleaniung and sanitation lf the plant lines and storage tanks, wouild prov~~ide excellent qualitx raxxv milk for processing into pleasing milk piroducts for the consurrmer. Pimf11,1)15' ('nILNL ' \11 Ii% \111 S siPI.FSOBoIAI\ Tsxs'I'TB IK, \I) PisSi Sokc. XK (otiii Con rnePi rPIgi ... . . . ... . . . .,pC Pct 47.7 36.0) 12.7 .36 odlic p Pt 17.3 :37.6 28.9 16.2 rI ank tirucks pI Pct. 19.2 19.2 61.6 Storage tanks SI'( P1 Pct. 50.1) :37.5 12.5 Pet. 6 .3 12.5 81.2 S10000) ... . . . . .. . 10.000- 100) 04 .. K) . . .. . 100,.000 1 0 ), (X1( ... ... I > 1,000) 000 .. . . . . . . Pct. 7.7(1(0 42.:3 :30.8 19.2 during tranisfer frmm the tank trucks and subsequent stoi age iii the plant beif ore prioces-5 sing indicate the need for imnpr'oved sanitarx practices. TIIi2. (CIIs'. ,SIN BCTFIsuis(,kXI 0Fin RA~k ML Sample source -We SP( ii P1 oin t/ndtit U Raxx milk of good b~ac'terial quiality ran be producedl on the (fairx, faria if'rcniiiiended procedures fo~r cleaning air(] sanitizing coXvs and milking equi imnent are ftollowxxed. Proper cleaning anti sanitation of' tanik trucks and milk transfer eu i pmient wonuId miniitainthe tqualitx during hatmlitugof the milk to the plant. baete ia Farin tank ... Tank truick ..... Tlank truc(k ..... Raw stor age tank . 14,00) 1:30) 0(W 56,000 17)0(00) 91 00) 1. 100,000 740,(M(1 2,500.,M() 'Inc( les, omits those tank t rticks for wxhiuch prodocer tank samples, were av ailable. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station at t '4455 i 4- 3 r A%'AL '4. JOHN L. ADRIAN, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology Consumers To be successful, farmer/sellers must recognize characteristics of consumers at farmers' markets and design their sales efforts to cater to the needs of these individuals. Consumers purchased an average offour different produce items at markets during the season. Items purchased by over 50% of the consumers contacted were: field peas, 74%, corn, 68%, and okra, 55%. Other commonly purchased items were: watermelons, 45%, tomatoes, 43%, butterbeans, 34%, and cantaloupes, 25%. Shoppers at farmers markets can be generally classified as 81% white and 89% females, respectively, from average size households, 3.5 members. They are typically over 25 years of age, with the distribution being 28% for 25-39 years, 37% for 40-55 years, and 32% for greater than 55 years. Use of these outlets was fairly consistent for individuals with less than $8,000, 29%, and from $8,000-15,000, 25%, income. However, the largest number of customers was included in the $15,001 to $25,00 income grouping, 36%. Consumers at farmers' markets lived near the outlet, with the average one-way distance being 3.3 miles. From the standpoint of competition, consumers indicated they resided an average of 1.5 miles from grocery stores. Also, a third of the consumers grew some produce. Price and freshness were by far the most important factors influencing consumers' decisions to purchase produce at farmers markets. Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday were days consumers usually shopped. Seventyseven percent usually shopped in the morning with the most preferred hours being 8-9, 29%, 9-10, 15%, and 10-11, 15%. Thirty-one percent of the consumers indicated they shopped at the market twice a week during the market season while a fourth visited once a week. Farmers' markets will continue to serve as prime outlets for locally grown produce. In fact, indications are that increases in usage will occur. Reasons for this relate to the advantages exhibited by these outlets: limited liability for customers by farmers since they are not on the farm premises, attracting customers is a function of the market, facilities (parking, restrooms, etc) are not the responsibility of the farmers, and a diverse supply of produce is available; thus, the variety of produce offered by an individual farmer is not as crucial to the market. Shortcomings of these outlets related to policies of the market (advertising, hours, rental space, etc.), location of the market, and time requirements for transporting and selling produce. V3L '* mL( " '- V 9 --- - Farmers indicated much experience in produce production with the average being 20 years. Size of operations varied from 1 to 500 acres with an average of 26 acres. Gross receipts per farmer from sales at farmers' markets averaged $2,425 per year with the upper limit approaching $20,000. Farmers indicated a preference for farmers' markets as outlets primarily because these outlets offered several positive aspects not exhibited by other market types, such as presence of more buyers, easy way to sell, convenience, and better prices. On balance, producers noted little future change in the extent of use of these outlets: 59%, 29%, and 16% of the producers planned to use farmers' markets the same, less, and more, respectively. Producers traveled an average of 26 miles one way to access farmers' markets with some producers traveling great distances. When this is translated to an average of approximately 1 hour of travel time per day and is coupled with several hours spent at the market, marketing at these outlets can be seen as quite time consuming. Generally, the labor must have few alternatives for this to be economically feasible. Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday were days most favored for marketing at these outlets. As would be expected, the day of greatest sales was Saturday. The importance of effective pricing of produce sold at farmers' markets cannot be overstated. Prime factors to consider in pricing include the competition's prices as well as product availability relative to customer activity. Pricing should be used as a tool to ration the available quantity in the case of scarcity and to promote sales when product is abundant or the marketing day is closing. A majority of farmers contacted followed these practices in that 89% evaluated prices charged by other farmers at the market and 79% stated they used prices at retail grocery outlets to establish their prices. Also, 57% and 56% noted time of day and their production costs plus a return as factors influencing pricing. 'i T serve as imporSr: "ETr',' tant direct outlets for fresh fruits and vegetables in Alabama. In various studies of marketing of local produce, two-thirds to three-fourths of the producers identified these outlets as preferred. The number of farmers' markets has increased substantially in recent years and construction of additional markets is planned for 1982. Twenty-four markets were in operation in 23 counties in 1981. These ranged from locations having adequate fixed facilities to mere open lots being allocated for use by local farmers. A survey of farmers' markets was initiated by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in the summer of 1981 to identify the nature of, problems with, and the potential for these outlets. Managers or overseers of the 24 markets plus 118 consumers and 113 farmer/sellers at markets were contacted. Markets Fifty-four percent ofthe managers of the 24 markets identified the lack of adequate facilities as the dominant factor limiting successful operation of their markets. Seventeen facilities had a covered shelter, 14 had electricity, 13 had restrooms, 12 had display tables and stands, and 8 had an office for the manager. Four each had cooling facilities, sink and cleaning facilities, and a shelter. Only two had grading and sizing equipment. Beyond the lack of facilities, managers mentioned lack of interest and use of markets by farmers, 24%, as being an important limitation. Farmer/Sellers Farmers averaged selling six different produce items at markets during the season. Dominant among these were field peas, corn, and tomatoes with 67%, 66% (38% sweet and 28% field), and 52% of the producers reporting sales, respectively. Other important produce items marketed were okra, 43%, watermelons, 42%, squash, 42%, butterbeans, 36%, greenbeans, 35%, cucumbers, 32%, and cantaloupes, 31%. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station EB BLIGHT, a foliar disease of lowW tannin sericea (caused by Rhizoctonia sp.), can greatly reduce seed yields. However, th, disease is not important in older, nornur high-tannin sericea. Although the new low tannin variety, AU Lotan, has shown a goo! level of field resistance to the disease, it iS possible that under conditions favorable for disease development, seed yields would ,e reduced. Hot, wet weather during August September, and October favors a buildup of the disease (see Breeding Low-tannin Sericea for Resistance to Foliar Disease, Highlights of Agr. Res., Vol. 28, No. 4, Winter 1981). This report of web blight control on lov tannin sericea is not a recommendation, sine it is based on 1 year's results from an experi ment performed in 1977. Due to dry weathc since then, there has been very little folit disease on low-tannin sericea making ver fication impossible. However, the effects ( fungicide treatment on seed production in 1977 were so striking that these data are being released now. To determine the effectiveness of certain fungicides in the control of Rhizoctoniaaerial web blight, 36 plots were established in March, 1977, with a disease-susceptible sericea line. Plots were four rows spaced 40 in. apart and 20 ft. long. Four fungicides were tested at two rates each, see table. These eight fungicide treatments, plus a control plot that received no fiungicides, were randomized and replicated four times. Fungicides were applied with a high-clearance sprayer on August 11 at the first appearance of the disease. Nothing further was done for disease ; 21 _________ .5*'~ -,.J"c" .: *i 1Q-; ,' ~ ,$' .1 - . a Low-tannin sericea with defoliated control on right and leafy Difolatan-treated plot on left. E.M. CLARK, Department of Botany, Plant Pathology, and Microbiology E.D. DONNELLY, Department of Agronomy and Soils FUNGICIDES AND RATES USED IN CONTROL OF RHIZOCTONIA AERIAL WEB , Bi(;IIr oN SERI( E vWIIH DISEASE RATIN;S ANI) SEED YIELD OF PLOIIS Seed yield Disease I Rate Funicide rating* Weight Increase ngicideai/acreon 10/11Weg over control Pct. 9 Difolatan 4F9 ..... oz. 64 1.5 222 236 Difolatan ® 177 183 2.3 4F ...... 32 oz. Benlate ® 138 109 3.3 50% WP . 4 oz. Benlate ® 97 130 50% WP . 8oz. 3.8 Terrachlor ® 93 41 75% WP . 10 lb. 3.5 Terrachlor® 15 76 3.5 75% WP. 5 lb. Vitavax® 23 4.0 81 3F ....... 8 oz. Vitavax® 66 0 3F ....... 16 oz. 4.0 66 0 4.5 Control .... -*1 = no symptoms, 5 - severe. control. On October 11 the plots were rated for disease development. Shortly thereafter, the two middle rows from each plot were harvested for seed yield using a small plot combine. Weather conditions in 1977 were very favorable for the development of Rhizoctonia aerial web blight on sericea. It first showed up early in August as a fine mycelial web on the lower leaves. Under humid conditions the webbing progressed to the top of the plants and eventually caused almost complete defoliation, see figure. Accompanying the defoliation was flower drop and loss ofseed. The fungicide-treated plots showed varying degrees of disease control from almost none with Vitavax to excellent with Difolatan, see table. The two rates of Difolatan gave control superior to that of the other fungicides with the 64 oz. rate giving the best. Seed yield showed a similar pattern, see table. Although most of the fungicides showed some disease control, only the two rates of Difolatan produced seed yields which were significantly higher than that of the control. There was more than a threefold increase in seed yield for the 64 oz. Difolatan treatment over that of the control. ® These results indicate that Difolatan 4F is very active against the fungus Rhizoctonia. It is persistent and possibly is redistributed by rainfall to new growth on the plant. These are properties which can enable one application in August to remain effective until harvest time. During extended periods of high humidity when a web blight epidemic threatens, an application of Difolatan 4FF can make a tremendous difference in the seed vield of low-tannin sericea. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Efec af Detg g n a p andCholestero RALP SREGTDearmet fAnialan6DirSiece FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN provide proteins of highest nutritional value and digestibility; they also serve as exceptionally good sources of certain vitamins and trace minerals required by man and animals. Although experiments indicate a potential health hazard to man or animals consuming excessive quantities of fat and cholesterol, there is no clear indication that moderate consumption of animal fat or cholesterol represents any risk to the health of the general human population. Moderate intake ofa wide variety offoods including meat, milk, or eggs, assures the balanced diet required by man and animals. Many studies of the atherogenic process in experimental animals used diets designed to create a metabolic crisis quickly; usually, the experimental diet included an excessive quantity of fat and simple sugars as well as an excessively high level of cholesterol. Other diets had restricted amounts of choline, methionine, vitamin B12 , and folic acid, nutrients that aid in metabolism of fat. This report summarizes a series of nutritional experiments to illustrate the individual and combined effects of nutritional deficiency and imbalance of nutrients on fat and cholesterol in tissues of rats. The results of figure 1 were obtained using a basal diet of 20% protein (10% soybean protein-10% casein) with all of the recommended accessory nutrients except those indicated. This diet is low in methionine and growth in weanling (45g) rats was increased by addition of this amino acid. The diet contained 20% lard, 46% starch, and 12% sucrose. Various combinations of choline (C), methionine (M), vitamin B12 (B12 ), and folic acid (F) were fed as indicated at levels recommended for rats. The bar graph illustrates body weight gain in 12 days, liver weights and total liver lipid contents at the end of the experiment. The results clearly indicate the role of choline in maintaining normal liver lipid and the effect of methionine on growth. Vitamin B12 and folic acid aid in utilizing methionine, reduce liver fat in the absence of choline, and utilize choline to stimulate growth slightly. The results presented in figure 2 show the effects ofvarious carbohydrates fed to 27-dayold rats (65g) on growth and liver lipids. The various sugars comprised 46% of the diet. 18 The results in the table compare 1.5% of corn oil, 20% corn oil, 20% hydrogenated corn oil, and 20% of lard with and without added cholesterol; measurements of liver lipid, liver cholesterol, and blood serum cholesterol were made at the termination of a 52-day trial. The 24-day-old rats were fed ,-F+l,+F +B,,+F +e,++ E diets containing 46% starch plus choline, methionine, vitamin B12 , and folic acid. Analysis of the results presented in the table showed that corn oil alone of the three fats at the 20% level increased deposition of fat in tissues of rats. Corn oil at 20% significantly increased both liver lipid and liver cholesterol as compared to the two other fats. contents, FIG. . B weight gain, iver lipid I Scholine, methionine, folic acid, and vitamin B12 inthe diet. (g / 2 day); Liver lipid () 7 (g/10 Corn oil fed with 0.5% of cholesterol gave the highest values for both total liver lipid and liver cholesterol; this combination also produced the highest serum cholesterol level. Results of this experiment and others indicate that 1.5% of corn oil, either with or without cholesterol, gave the lowest values for fat and cholesterol in tissues; this level supplies an adequate quantity of essential fatty acids. Commercial hydrogenated corn oil did not promote deposition of cholesterol in tissues in this study. Conclusions drawn from this study are that corn oil fed at the 20% level increased tissue fat levels in rats in long-term studies; I E Gain - Lipid weight Liver 25- Starch +C,+M +F,+B, 2 Starch -C,-M -Fe,-B,2 Sucrose -C,-M -F,-B, Glucose -C,-M -F,-Bl, cholesterol at a moderately high (0.5%) dietary level was deposited in tissues iffed with 20% of fat; corn oil (polyunsaturated fat), fed either alone or with cholesterol, deposited the highest levels of fat and cholesterol in rat tissues. FIG. 2. The effect of type carboh ydrate on weightgain, liverlipidcontents, an dliversize. EFFECT OF DIET ON LIPID AND CHOLESTEROL OF LIVER AND CHOLESTEROL OF BLOOD SERUM Diets 1.5% corn oil .................... 1.5% corn oil +0.5% cholesterol .............. 20% lard ........................ 20% lard +0.5 cholesterol ............... 20% corn oil ..................... 20% corn oil +0.5% cholesterol .............. 20% hyd. corn oil ................ 20% hyd. corn oil +0.5% cholesterol .............. Body weight gain 52 days g 272.6±33.6 263.4 ±20.0 314.6±_12.4 . 295.4±30.3 .318 ±30.8 292.2± 18.7 288.0±28.3 291.2± 11.8 Liver lipid Pct. 18.1±2.9 19.8 ± 1.2 18.5±+1.2 25.1±_3.3 24.8 ±2.5 26.9±3.2 17.6±0.7 23.92±1.2 Liver cholesterol mg/g 4.33±0.8 Serum cholesterol mg/dl 70.3±4.7 4.43±0.3 73.4±5.1 4.70±0.3 70.4±_3.8 7.06±0.8 6.50±0.3 8.78±2.2 3.69±0.2 6.63± t1.8 94.2±5.3 83.7±6.4 102.3 ±6.1 75.6±9.2 82.9± t4.8 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station HAL COMPO SITE PL 1. WV OD has beenl devel~oped, inanoif"ctii I ri aiid miarketedcci C'(Xfiiii ill ill' orthxc N i't Xiil( 1'I976. 'hui' ain jiixtif icdtioiilii d for wasXto uitilize, as (cc, tciini(idlll(e \ lliliiii a (ilca\Xd CIll )t siuitable tfi llter uses. tht turei Nation's softwoo 00(1 iiin ft hilftcixX 1 S IF lCTI Properties of Composite Plywood with Southern Pine Veneer Faces and Oriented Southern Oak Strand Core F J 4, Ht 1 i' F' ~it Fo ,-, . iii xodt is mnfaoiif %CC' M xt pilrtiCao l iic prfit h11 lkt IN oaks of lox',(qiiditx A to sdtisfX need'sx tiiii lecX 'lb it iI, p'c'tedl that (ilillini 101 wxill xiii pdxx old pi'iiI - striuctiuiral \N (11( pl\ .3 I hliilil til siq. ft. 13/S in.I axi per year. Pairt oif tfiis aldditioniil phvoo XX .mil biiinitli xklli'l( t clpoi lill-c \xo( Clii'tll liii Ii fin iciio'i fiX % hC hiis% tliiii cli ~-, / fiiiix iifIe c 2h ii llifllitlof ))iXl 1111il XX I . thcalai xti l('I X 1 pice ti t' iilitiii iticiiii\(,]lox% ill(i fi jit IC 'i iTlii' If se doIlli XX I ll It-111 it111 lit 111 I l l filr II .111 il 710 1 of I Illi l iiof,1 dIIIi, 11 ola \x1 Highli roed re c rnetaIc xxittl andi 102 iii. li'iiitii curediiil XX r it 11o1 ax ll' Ipii'X XX i ii~iii ;it Results and Conclusions lIlIT lot 1) flit Still' (dtilial St i ii Cii C Ii iiuii AXprtc iand 01iiiau l)ibii' it i li d i )1 \xt _i 5 1 '2 till mill.\ xili o~i l ti C 1(111 tx ill, 1111111 iii tt i't ( xi lioI Xif' 1 1I IIn i2 icat Xit til' (ai ) i 4u h) aiiiXX iif liix 4iIX 112 of' 491e XXi' i / i. iid,iiiii~ I Fabrication of Composites p c tdill a sli ci 1 p 11 l '\il illhc Itl Hi (iffii C \111 I Ill Ixica iI llt lo)1)e l ' a X i ii ll41 ii 1)1 II! I ltlii ill 11 iII IetailIll aI' f i XXIIIll c-o s lth r 1a e 2 n (' ~1/4 ii ). UP 1101 i 1 11 al)) k 0ihxxi (II 1/4i~t i th i i i Ici IIiiicii flXXXI i r ile strand111 CIII I l )is llpl il1' thic 11 II i wo IiXuti liti ofIltlx oiti id C(iii\ iii il X t'iilX o de t71 \ 1 1 9 231 Pii 11 CIA k x l o xi i Il l d it at Xfw"llx f tillil ill' l i XXX iiii lil cti lix 14 c t't r'iiti At hItl Ixa lisedfxlI ti Ii ilixIliitc ( xi fProIcedure I I illt Il Co~ iic p ti'e ill a1 p u'Iill tikt w mai791) , Testing lt Lc xfitl'l , ili t 1 SI ti Illi stiulltf\llxlxoodpl (ce i)' itix- aCCiildil14 tll ASI\ Stidilidi ill flexurei loiiittt 1 1 iiiix ii' 1 Ill itlitlik '.11 XII i Ilkc dx litll the Calc cli oft 1(11 72 1'1 oI i IX lic iltlti ITT( till /' t ilI 'I I Il I It I Iiel It l X11 \1N\ilti Iix ialle l Ii ni14 11 1i'xXiXI Xi toi xl icI11 Allaama .Xgri('ultitral I'x~lwrimtii Sat(Iioni Several Perennial Ryegrasses Look Good for Putting Greens RAY DICKENS, RICHARD WHITE. DAVID TURNER, and KYLE MILLER Department of Agronomy and Soils Appearance differences were only minor between varieties of perennial ryegrass varieties, as shown by this test green. S PRING HAS LONG BEEN a tiiu'e of' dread more than anticipation for golf ciirse sup1erintendlents in the South. The traiisitioii from aniual rs egrass or rooghstalk hiliegrass to) herinudagrass was the cause fur iiiich app1reheiision. In rnany cases these cool season grasses ss ould die nOt rap)idly, leaN ing putting greens hare until the heriiiiitagrass couildl Ie coaxed ot of dormancys The need wxas for a cool season grass that W.oii 1( e stabli sh rapidily in the fall like annuhal rs egrass. hav e adequate disease resistance, anid die out gradually the following spring. TFhe gradual decline is needed to allow tiiie for hermoudagrass to dev elop at dense turf wh ile the cool season grass still prosvides at green app)earance. Perennial r\ egrass was found to fiilf'ill the requirements admirablys and mninerus varieties becarne asvailable that hasve priov ed their worth in Alabama Agricultural Exsperiment Station tests. New varieties are released each year, andi these are evaluuated at Auburn when they b~ecome as ailalule Testing of ness v arieties has beeii donie in small plot expe rimnents on a inaturc f gi ee ii (Ii hermorlagrass turf maintained ais atgolf lputting green. In Octoher each xear, the turf'ss as )ertucalls mosved in tssoi directions and the clippings removed. Seed-we rc then uniformIs distributed over the 4- by 84ft. plots iisiiiga dIrop seeder. Seeding rate wxas 401)1lb per After seeding, the entire experiment witas topdlresserl with a ' 4-in, laser ofwsaslied mnortar sand. The area wxas kept moist for 14 dass to) ensure good germination of the rs egi ass. NMosviugssas hegun wxhen the rs egrasses ssi c applroximately 1 in. high, and the plots ci c miussetl tsxo to fotir times )er sweek at Vi in. ong height throughout the season. '[he area s.vas fertilized swith 11/ 211). ofinitriigeii per 1 0(X) sq. ft. per month utilizing actusated sewsage sludge as the nitrogen source. Ratings oi' appearance and general perfurmnance of the perennial es egrass s arieties were made evers 14 dasys throughout the groswing season. Color and] texture ratinugs also were miade. As shown by ratings in the tahle, there swere iio great differences in appearance amiong the varieties tested. Maijord(illerelics of us ed swere in color. Caras el le aund Regal are darker green than most (ither selectiims. LoAretta, Score, S hoswboat, and Spiniter has\ c at light green color. Noi large texture differences wsere noted under coinditioiis of' this trial. All svarieties wxere damraged by freezing xx eather, such as occurs in januars and] Februarsy. Since golf' plas, al so islimited bs sFi Api'i o cold, the p)roblem is not ats serious ats it might seem. By Mlarch or April all varieties ss ere performing well. Based on results of the Auiurn trials and comupari sons made on at local golf' cou irse, it can he said that management is more iiiiportant than sarmets in deteriminiing qiuiality aind appearance of' perennial rs egrass putting greens. Trhus, the relatisve pirice of'seed inas Ihe the most logical basis on swich to choose at s arietv. ()O\FsuFFo i oIsPFiFiki, Ru uaiAssv, i Appe)aranice rating' Variets Jan. 1978-79 Feb. MIar. Ap. 1979-8(0 19801 81 Apr. Jan. I'Nh Mar A pr. jin. :3.0 :3.0 :3.7 .- Feb. Mar. Acclaimu .... . 0 Blarr\ .:.....3.3 Cjan'el4l.... 3.0 IDelra\ ..... Dc, h\..........0 .8 3.5 4.0 3.2 4.3 .3.5 4.2 :3.8 :3.2 4:3 4.11 :3.5 :3.8 :37 T .0 4.7 .5 5.3 4.8 .0 .7 2.7 2.7 2.7 :3.3 2.7 3.0 .0 5.0 133 5.7 47T 5.7 5.3 .0 .0 .7 4.7 3.0 5. so-4.7 4.3 (3iali" ILorctta . ... Ri~al . .... Soe. ... 2(1 2.8 2.7 30 5.0 7.0 5.7 5.0 53.3 7.3 6.3 S(1 6.7 8.3 8.0 9.3 7.3 7.3 8.7 6.7 77 7.0 6.7 67 7.0 :3(1 :3.7 7.7 81) 7.0 :3(1 .33 S 1ssboait .... Sprinter .... 2.7 2,5 4.3 3.7 :3.2 3.7 4.5 (7 2.7 2:3 :3.0 2(0 5.0 4.7T 4.3 5. 3 5.3 7.7 7.7 81) 7.0 710 Ha.tinil" scale. oft() to Ill %N 5 0Iejqal tn accritalci andII 11 excellenit it AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849 Gale A. Buchanan, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 6/82 Penalty for Private use, $300 POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGH 101 BULK RATE