- ~ 1 -1 >4 4 A 4 N tx A A 'V ~t t 4 -4 1 t t V A '4 9,i I 4' 7* Xiv; A~' 4 t4.~ g r4 v t -t 4 r t 4 4 t ,* -. ~ 4 DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS M\~OlDI N O)RGAN I/A I IONS are aix xaiicd ax thle product.x ihex i cien. Decxpite their difflerencex,, hlox CxCr - ach giroup can plaN a posit ix role in enhancing the scope and ef feetix cnexx Of agiCieulia research. fin Alabama, xex eral cominodit\ olgani/ations hax e madte important conitributionx to research efforts oi the Alabamna Agticultural E xpetriment Station. WAe aek noxx ldge and appireciate 4 thexe contr ibutionx and look forxs .od xxith keen anticipation to ex en mre effeetix e suppor t of our rexeareh piogramn in the xcarx alhead. Ax roted in prex ioux S ctijici ials. thle mixsion of thle Alabarna Agi 1 tural I \pei iment Station ix xpecific and xtraighiforxxard. Thai misxion ix to proxidc the rexeairch base for thle most ctii ceert utiliatiiin of the resources thai go into agricult uial pirod uction. lIwo ke\ elements ot a xou nd, x able excai cl program airc (I) the identificaGALE A. BUCHANAN tion of problemx and thle setting of their respectix e ptriorities, and (2) the prox id ing of financial xu ppoirt needed toi research the piroblemx. Commnoditx organizationx canl be helpful in both of thexe. Such groupx can be CxpeCiallx helpful in ideniixing i eseareb problemx. IThei- membership is compisied of indixvidualx wxho ate knoss edgeable about a partieulai co mmodity and xxho hax e the most to gain from solv ing problems related to that cornmoditx. I lie trole that commod it\ oi gani/atiorix can plax in obtaining financial xupport for our research programs is not xx understood. I xx reaxonx ClI o probablx account for this: (I1) There ix the human tendenex to ask for something xwhethei tr ufy needed or not, and (2) commnodits giroupx arc not neecessaril\ expertx in the xx axs of' promoting financial xupport. In seeking a baxe of financial support foi agricultural research, one Muxt uinderxtand the significanee ofifie treseatrch and hoxx much it ix going to cost. As tilhe numbher of people xx u nd erxtand and appreciate agriCUlho ture continues to diminish, it becomes, ex er more critical for thoise involxed in agriculture, and ate kno\Nledgeable about its mans' aspects, to be effectix e in selling agtFicultutal research needs to the total Population. The centerpiece of selling. of course. rmust be xx th membners of legislarix c bodiex at both state and national levels. A direct xx for eomnmoditx groups to proxvide positix C support totax reseai eb is through cheek-off monies. Sexveral highlx effeetix e cheek-off programs in Alaba mni are making Substantial contriibutions to our research programx on a continuing basis. Other comnmodit\ groups choose to make contributions on special occaxions rat her than a conti nuing basis. In any cxvent, sueh contri buttons to our r esearch efforts are imporitant, enabling us to accomplish specific research objcctixes that xxold otherxx ise be neglected. Comnmodit\ organi/ations are most effectixve xxhen their ideas and suggestions are earefullx dcx eloped and broadlV representatix e of thenmembership. Furthermore. sueb input ix best xxhen eonxcxed directlx and on a Continuing basis. P~articipation of Auburn xeientists and id ministia,tois in cornmod itv meetings and participation of eomrmoditx members in Experiment Station field daxs and meetings prox ide excellent opportuinities for interchange of information betxx en the txxo giroups. An occasionail speeial meeting to hr ing commoditv groups and Experiment Station scientists and administrators together also ean be highly effeetix e. IDutring this period of depressed state and federal funding for agricultural research, it is more important than exver that eommodity gro(ups plax' an exen greater role helping the Alabama Agricultural Experimnent Station to fulfill its mission. 'I his offiee stands reads to meet and xx ork xxithI cominodit\ groups to define problems and Oppoirtunities of' mutual concern. CO Dr. ('Iudc I I) B\d P pktss I Depart niu Of aind Allied AqIU ICUlturcs. lBoin in Hatlex. Mississippi, Di. Boyd attended WAood J1unior College in Math iston, NIississippi. i eceix ed his B.S. and M.S. degrees in entomologs f romi Mississippi State V'nix ci,,it\, Statec College. \I xxixsippi. and ieeeix ed his PhI ). (rked axan acuaHe xx tie biologist xx the Southith eastern WAater I aborator\ in Athens. Georgia, and then S returned to Auhur n in 1971 as an associate professor after a 3se ar st jut as plant ecologist at the Sax annah Rix ci ecolog\ I aboratot x in Aiken. South Carolmna. Dr. Boxxd teaehes Courses in xx atertjlualit\ xxbile at the same time earrx ing on Station r eseareh in xx ater qualit\ managemient and pond bxdrology. Dr. Boxd is a member ot Sigima Xi. Phi Kappa Phi, A meriean Soeitt of I imolog and Oeeanography, Eeologieal SoeietY of Ameriea. and Ameriean F-isheries Soeietv. He is the author of max jour nal articles, station publications, and a book, *'Water QuatIt in WAai mxx atet IFish Ponds," pubs,1966. lished bx the Station. Ag'ricadliural Resecarchn WINTER 1981 VOL. 28, NO. 4 A quartetix repott of tcseareh Published hx' the Alabamna Agricultural Experiment Station. Auburn U'nixersity. GALL A. Bt ('H \N A .......... I1)irei (or T.E. C 0 RLE Y . . . .A.YS ta/it1 IDireitor E.L. M(-GRA\N .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Edi'or R. E. S 1itVFN\SON . . .. Associate Editor S I EVEF GRENADE..Assixstan Editor N: C.A. f-I01). is situnt Professor of*Agrw11uhoral Engmneermn tCI ND!I E\ AN'S. 1 ssomate Profe~ssor of A. Bt UII \N 0 A.s sista7t Pro leSSor- of I ores tr-, D. N. M xRpii . A/ui~u11i Associate ProfeISor of .4 uiota/ SeCiuc17A. E. H,\Im )\. As so(late Pro/essor of A gricultural Lco 110/Oh.c0/7an Rural Socioloiv: VIR(,INI, \ C. KiiI I A- ssocmate Pro/*Cssor of Alu r'IOhiologa;.v AN N/\ S\ '\(II \ Assi sistant Professor of' \itrit imn: and E.LI McG RA \ Information contained herein is av ailable to all wxithout regard to race, color, sex. or national origin. ON THE COVER: Harvesting was the final stage of an Experiment Station field study to determine time and fuel required for specific production practices for cotton. See corresponding story on page 5. Liquid Fertilizers For Fish Ponds CLAUDE E. BOYD, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures FISH PONDS are normally fertilized by either broadcasting fertilizer granules over shallow water areas or by placing fertilizers on underwater platforms so water currents disperse the nutrients as they dissolve. Recent studies show that less than 15% of phosphorus (the most important nutrient in pond fertilizers) in fertilizer granules dissolves while the granules settle through 6 ft. of water. The rest of the phosphorus dissolves while the granules lay on mud. It is rapidly absorbed by the mud and has little further value in increasing fish production. Fertilizer granules applied on platforms do not contact mud, but the rate of nutrient release from fertilizers on platforms is slow. Liquid fertilizers, which are becoming quite popular in agriculture, are highly soluble; all of the phosphorus in them quickly dissolves so it may be rapidly absorbed by phytoplankton. Of course, any phosphorus not absorbed by phytoplankton will soon be adsorbed by muds and rendered essentially unavailable. In the figure, a comparison of inorganic phosphorus concentrations in water following the broadcast applications of equal quantities of phosphorus in two granular fertilizers (diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate) and a liquid fertilizer (Poly N®, Allied Chemical Company) shows that the liquid fertilizer is clearly superior in elevating phosphorus concentrations. Hence, the phosphorus from liquid fertilizer has a greater chance of being absorbed by phytoplankton and later increasing fish production than that from the granular fertilizers. The effects on sunfish production of several fertilizer treatments in experimental ponds are summarized in the table. These findings demonstrate that fertilization will greatly increase fish production and that liquid fertilizers are effective in fish ponds. The greatest fish production was achieved with liquid fertilizer (13-38-0) at 20 lb. per acre per application. This rate was equal to 7.6 lb. of P205 per acre per application-about the same rate at which phosphorus was applied in granular 20-20-5 or 0-20-5. The lowest liquid fertilizer rate (1.9 lb. of P205 per acre per application) increased fish production to nearly three times that of the unfertilized ponds. Liquid fertilizers may be used at 2 to 4 lb. of P20 5 per acre per application in ponds with light or moderate fishing and at 8 lb. of PRODUCTION OF SUNFISH IN EXPERIMENTAL PONDS Fertilizer treatment None 20-20-5, Granular Rate/acre/app. Fish prod. Fertilizer P205 per acre Lb. 0 40 Lb. 0 8 Lb. 100 321 0-20-5, Granular 13-38-0, Liquid 13-38-0, iquid 13-38-0, Liquid 40 5 10 20 8 1.9 3.8 7.6 287 276 281 373 Each treatment was replicated four times and fertilizers were applied 11 times between mid- February and October. P2 05 per acre application in ponds with heavy fishing. The application rate in gallons may be calculated as follows: gallons of fertilizer per acre are equal to pounds of P2 0 5 per acre divided by (decimal fraction of P2 05 in fertilizer times weight of fertilizer in pounds per gallon). Liquid fertilizers may be sprayed over the shallow edges of ponds with either a small garden sprayer or a larger power sprayer. The fertilizer can be sprayed from readily accessible shoreline because it is not necessary to treat more than 25% of the shallow water edge. Liquid fertilizer may also be discharged from a small tube ( - to -in. inside diameter) into the propeller wash of a gasoline or electric outboard motor as the boat is navigated over the pond. For ponds of 1 acre or less in area, liquid fertilizer can be diluted with water and splashed over the pond surfaces. Liquid fertilizer should not be poured directly into ponds because it is heavier than water and will flow to the bottom without mixing. Presently, liquid fertilizers are not marketed in small, convenient containers for use in fish ponds. However, in areas where liquid fertilizers are sold for agricultural use, pond owners can furnish their own containers and purchase the desired volume of fertilizer. Liquid fertilizers store well for at least 1 year. After a few months storage, they become cloudy and some crystals form in the bottom of the container. However, this material is still suitable for pond fertilization. Soluble inorganic Iou l nro (ppm) i phosphorus 0 -1myb 0.5 rpdl bore 0 Poly N 0 DAP A TSP 0.4 0.3k 0.2- ol 0 20 30 40 50 D[ys Concentrations of inorganic phosphorus in ponds treated with either liquid fertilizer (Poly N®), diammonium phosphate (DAP), or triple superphosphate (TSP) at rates of 8 lb. of P205 per acre application. Arrows indicate application dates. 60 70 80 90 100 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Fumigation increased tree growth and earlyyear production of this peach orchard that was planted following two generations of peach trees at the Chilton Area Horticulture Substation. i,0 *,?P;. OI r S .r ,', S e. Growth and Yield Response of Peaches From Fumigating New Orchards on "Short Life" Sites HENRY C. WILLIAMS. Dept. of Agronomy and Soils W.A. DOZIER, JR., Dept. of Horticulture C.E. EVANS, Dept. of Agronomy and Soils C.C. CARLTON and K.C. SHORT, Chilton Area Horticulture Substation EACH I REE SHORT LIFE, also called peach decline, has only recently been observed in Alabama. Research effort is already underway by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station to prevent this problem from developing into the serious one that it is in the older peach production areas of the Southeast. The most obvious symptom of short life is the sudden death of peach trees shortly after spring growth begins. This is caused by cold injury to the cambial tissue, which disrupts translocation of plant nutrients and water. While cold injury is what ultimately kills the tree, such factors as diseases, nematodes, low fertility, low pH, and possibly toxins from roots of previous peach trees "set up" the trees for cold injur\. P In the past, growers could exj pect an orchard planted on land which had n been tot in peaches before to last 15 to 20 sears. 0 Orchards planted following one or t genwo erations of trees on the same land a "short life" site may live only 6 to 10 yea rs. Rootstock selection, pruning, sub soiling, fertilizing, liming, and fumigating arte practices that have been reported to re duce or eliminate the short life problem. I he Auburn research, begun in 1978 at the Chilton Area Horticulture Substation, is aluating ev effects of lime sources and placem ent and soil fumigation on survival and perfo rmance of peach trees on an old orchard site. The site chosen for the study has had two consecutive generations of peach tr ees. The second generation was planted in 1 959 and removed in 1977. Iime and fun nigation treatments were established in the fall of 1977 and the orchard was planted the following spring. Lime treatments were sufficient a mounts of (I) hydrated. (2) calcitic, and (3) d olomitic lime to raise the soil pH to 6.5 in th top 10 e in. soil, and (4) sufficient dolomiti clime to of raise the pH to 6.5 in the top 6 in. Init iallv. all plots received 1,000 lb. per acre of 1 I 0-10 0incorporated into the top 10 in.of soil. All subsequent nitrogen was applied as calcium nitrate. One-half of each lime plot was fumigated with DBCPprior to planting and rep eated in spring 1979. The fumigant was appl ied 6 in. deep by the use of a fluted colter ap plicator with colters 12 in. apart. Correll peach trees on L.ovell ro ootstock were planted in spring 1978 on 20- x 20-ft. spacing with four trees per plot. Recommended fertilizer rates and control n easures for insects, diseases, and weeds we ere used uniformly on all plots. Trunk diameter and tree height measurements were taken in fall each Near. Mature leaves from the mid-portion of the current season's growth were collected each year in June and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and calcium. Fruit production began in the third leaf (1980) and yield data were taken in 1980 and 1981. Soil fumigation had a dramatic effect on tree performance. Nutrient content of leaves from the fumigated plots was higher for most elements in the first year, but there have been few significant differences since. Trunk circumference of trees in the fumigated plots was 17% larger after the first year, 12% larger after 2 years, and 121( larger after the third lcaf, see table. Fumigated trees also were taller during the first 2 years, but mechanical pruning masked any differences after the second rear. Yield differences from fumigation were striking. Trees on fumigated plots yielded 72%j and 19(' more fruit in the third and fourth leaf, respectively, than nonfumigated trees. No differences in nutrient content of leaves, tree growth, tree survival, and yield at the end of the fourth leaf have sho wn up among the different lime treatments to date. To date, no trees have been lost to peach tree short life in this study. The cost of fumigation was more than recovered with increased yields during the first harvest year. Additional benefits from fumigation, and possibly from liming, are anticipated as the orchard gets older. EiFFEC OF SO F MIG T(i iN ON TRKE P Ri OR MANCF OF CORRKFI PLACH IRI S Year and treatment Free Yield Trunk per circum- height acre terence Inl. 1 59.5 52.8 119.4 109.0 133.4 131.0 105 61 B . B1. Increase per acre from tumigation Bu. 1978 Fumigated Not fumigated 1979 Fumigated Not tumigated 1980 Fumigated Not fumigated 1981 Fumigated Not tumigated (umulative Fumigated Not fumigated 4.2 3.6 9.3 8.3 12.5 11.2 Alaubana Agricultural Experinmen Station INCE I ORI 1) \\A\R 11, there haxe been f1CIqut xxani nnc. in thle t nited States and elsexx here, about thle unict aintx of the fossil fuel SUPPlx Most Of these xxat ninLs \ xxem unheeded until the O)ITFC emnbargo ot 1973. anl cx cut that made the xxorld. e~speciallx the I ruled States, aettei axx are of its dependence onl petroleum i a an crnet L-\ souircc. S fi- 1' ,IN d 1 .1 F-or tilie past 4 or 5 decades. tossil f uels xxet e- abundant and etelxC1l loxx in cost eomiipa red x it h \%flat eould be aecomplished in cirop pr oduction h\ their use. I he reeent rapid price increase and uncertaintxl of' suppix hax e created economic pi essures that demnand a reexamtintatio~n Of' iltt i C1CL' iniensix cirop proid uetion xx xIetii, Prtoduetion COSiS otla ai fCottoni lxixC lC~ doubled in the last 10 \ears and fuel IS all impoirtanit part of that increase. Not onlx is the cost Of ftuel imipottan to cotton procILIe ers. but adcquate supplies airc ci itical at thi peak enci gx requurement petriods of seedfbed preparation, planting. and haix esting. If the larler1 has all insufficient fuel sitppl cluiuu these critical pet ocfs, his total produiction miax be sex erelx limited. Itfihe opet ,Iucs xithin at limited tile] supplx, he Must kiToxi the ftiel lcluirel1Tnets, for ill phases of pioduction so he can budget his suLpplx to tI at crop demand. A field stud\, conducted at thle Agi cultural Enigineering Research t nit. xNas initiated in 19811 to determinue thc ltme and tuel requtired for specific prod uct ion practices f'or cotton. An 18.5-acre field il sand\ loamr soil, conttaining 3(00 roxx (411in.) ranguingm fromt 62 to 1.289 f-t. in lenethI. xx used as f'or thle xtudy. Abotit 1511 of' thle roxxs x"etc less than 1(0 ft. xN 4211 beingz Iongzer than ith tL000l. I hie turning- area at the end iol the roxx x kaxsmiooth anid aitge enough tc) pet mit efficient t uring xxit h ll[ machinet x. A 610lip tractor xx used lot- all operaitin' ecept as insect spi axing antdc rx et i ng Iiraxel speed ha l-ot each machine xx selected hx an experas tenccd operator depending upon ix pe operation and soil and plant conditions. D)ata xx collected in 1980 and 198 1 firont cic the test at ca for a con\x enticinal 4-roxl pioduction s\ stemr consisting of stalk Cutting. disk harrioxwing. moldboar d ploll ing. beddintg, bed conditioning. planting. culti t tug, insect control, and harx esting. I he ahox c s\ stein required 21 machine tirips across the field. Results f'romn the test atrea are shMxx i in the table. I he total f'uel required for thre product ion xx stem studied "xas 11.012 gal. pcr acre. I fie txxo practices hax inrg the most influence (on fuel requirements xxcrc seedbed preparation A labNtia Agii uural Exjwritiieti '4 production system. Fuel Requirements for Cotton Production 7Agricutural E ginccr and harx esting. I hese ix'. o practices required 8.37 gal. of fuel per aicre or 7611 of' thc total fuel used] A total of 3 bouts and 43.7 ruiiutes of field timec pet acre xx requited to as produce and hat xext cotton.i Prod uctix e timei xlas 814(( of the total field timexltu thle remaininig 16(1(1 used lot Support f'unctions. Ithese support f'unctions included such thinc's as machitit adjustmients, fillingz FI iI \'\[)I hoppers and spran er tanks, dutmping cotton. and turning. Daa~ From othet ptroduction sx stems %k ill be collected in tilc future. Once this f'uel data base is established forF x attous, cottoni Pt 0 duction xx stemus. f uICl informuation xx be use ill ax ailable to aid farmers in bcudgeting t heir encig cxorf'ueIl ipplx and ittseleting ciicigx efficient pr odution 'x 'teiti' UO I I 0\ I \1 I R 101 1K 1 1) PI R A( M I OR P R( Ml (I\(, Operaion' NIadchi ne si/e Ma~chfinte speedf aicre I tie] 111. pei aicre IRo , 111ut stalIks (rot aT rnonetc D isking (disk hairroo Plo111 ng ( mold hoiid) B~edding (disk hedder) C ondition bed, anid incorporate herbicide ( 010 tiller I /if, 11H 4.8 2- ro x f0t. 4 ftt 4-ril~l 4-imil 4-i o"l 4.8 4.4 4.1 4.3 4.3 .3 13.7 29. 101.8 13. 2 0).75 Pla nting lIs cliil .iion (slecer) Side-di css nitroigen (enht ifuld -Ind citi atioi ( sO cep t'ost-dii cied spi *i 3rd cult ation (sxxeep) Inlsect xpiaing 8x5 0.34 4-rokk 1l tol If 118 9.9 0(.27 4-ro\l 4-rilkl 4.S 4.4 4.3 Cotton harx est (histx pic king) Cotion harx Cxi (second picking) I oials 4- 1111 I 2-till 2- 1111 2-roxl 6.0 511 26 (0.24 (0 29 11 26.2 3 hr. 43. n iii, 1 10 3.1 1601 tractor for alffoperations except inseet sprax tug and biars ext. h.p. 'Gasoiline foi insect spraxing, ,ifl otfhers diesel. 'Fight applicatitons per seasxon Stwicion Soybean Stem Canker: A Serious Disease In Alabama iA BACKMAN MVA CrAVV ' a HDi rc AvH Department of Botany, Plant Pathology. and Mic , DL THIU LOW D, ar e. f n'm -- SON BEAN S'IiFM CA\NK 1R, a disease caused by the fungus Diaporthe phaseolorum \xar. caulivora, has been found in soybeans grown from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. However, until recently severe losses from this disease had not been observed in Alabama. In 1977, several thousand acres of soybeans in Montgomer\ county were infected with this fungus and severe crop losses occurred. Ihis region of Alabama was severels drought-stressed at the time, which probably contributed to the sexerity of the disease. No further outbreaks of the disease were recorded until 1980. During the 1980 and 1981 seasons, stem canker occurred throughout the Black Belt counties of central Alabama, as well as several river bottom areas adjacent to this zone. Severe outbreaks were also reported in Mississippi's Black Belt and adjacent areas. In both 1980 and 1981 sexere drought stress was recorded throughout central Alabama and Mississippi. Symptoms of the disease are small reddish-black lesions originating typically in the leaf axils, becoming black. sunken, and elongate on the stem. As the disease becomes severe, plants typically show chlorosis (yellowing) between leaf veins, followed by death of the interveinal tissue and chlorosis near the veins. In advanced stages of the disease, the plant dies. Whole fields were frequently destroyed as a result of this disease. Research from several regions of the country indicates that stem canker is seedborne and that this is the primary method by which the disease is introduced into new fields. Once established, the fungus survives from season to season on crop debris. Experiments have been conducted for the past 2 years to evaluate varieties for resistance as well as chemicals for control of the disease. Disease control using fungicides, table 1, are encouraging based on 1980 results. These data indicate that performance of the registered fungicides was poor, but that the addition of PenetratorO (oil-surfactant blend) improved overall performance. Applications were made at intervals presently recommended for fungicides applied to soybeans. Varieties .differed significantly in stem canker ratings, table 2. Tracy M and Tracy \ ere most resistant (agreei ng sith data from Mississippi): several other varieties were rated as good as Tracs M. but multi-state data are not sct a ailable to confirm these obser ations. A large group of varieties had intermediate levels of resistance (ratings between 1.5 and 2.3). while ratings greater than 2.4 indicate that sexere losses can occur. It should be emphasized that disease sexerity within varieties can sary from year to year and location to location, and only the most resistant varieties can be expected to be tolerant to stem canker under the broadest range of conditions (see Coker 156 in table I vs. table 2). Several strategies are available to farmers who are growing soybeans in areas with a history of stem canker: (I) deep turn the soil in the fall to burs crop debris in those areas Sobean stell "ith t pical stem canktr si)p- toms. T\BI 1 2. SIEM CNKI i< RllisS R M\I)I (o \I O Soii s x ii) Sot 1I x \N V R i11 n I \o Pi \x\ i,,o 1) \I xi Bi AU'K s BEI I St si \io\, 1981 Variety Ratings b\ soil and planting dates Planted Ma\ 12 Planted June 2 t maturity VI Tracy M ... Frac\ ...... RA 680 .... McNair 600 Coker 156 .. Dasis ...... Centennial.. Terra \ig 606 Deltapine 506 Deltapine 416 Lee 74 ..... Bryso 9 ... R A 604 ... \II Braxton .... Wright ..... Coker 317 .. Ransom .... A P 70 ..... Ga So\ 17 .. Bragg ...... Wilstar 790 . Brooks ..... Coker 237 .. R A 701 ... Terra Vig 708 Cobb ...... Coker 488 .. Dowling ... A P 70 ..... Foster ..... Coker 338 .. Hutton ..... R A 800 ... LSD .05 ... C.V. i ..... Vaiden clay 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.5 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.5+ 3.0+ 2.5+ Sumter clay 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.8 2.8+ 1.8 2.3+ 3.5+ Sumter cla 1.0 sshere the disease has occurred and that ,will not be damaged by erosion: (2) do not plant seed from infested fields: and (3) plant the most resistant varieties available. Preliminar, research suggests that additional benefits mai be gained by:(1) fungici- 1.7 2.5+ 1.5 - dal seed treatments of seed from unknown seed sources, and (2) the use of Benlate plus Penetrator whenever farmers in infested areas plan to use foliar fungicides on their so beans. Research is presently being conducted to determine the benefits of seed treatment and to better identify fungicides and times of application that will lead to the control of stem canker in soybeans. This research , as supported in part by a grantin-aid from the Alabama So\bean Producers Association. TABLE 1. CON I iRO OF S [-M CSANKR UiN(i FoGIicII:ns APPiIED Hs (GRO NI) SPR'xIR 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.0+ 3.0+ 3.0+ 4.0+ 2.5+ 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0+ 3.0+ 3.5+ 4.0+ 1.0 25 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.0+ 2.0+ 2.3* 3.3+ 2.8+ 2.5+ 2.5+ 2.5+ 1.8 1.3 1.0 2.3+ 1.3 3.5+ 2.8+ 2.5+ 0.9 25.4 1.3 1.6 1.5 2.3+ 1.9+ 3.2+ 3.3+ 3.4+ 3.2+ 1.4 1.6 1.2 Io CoKi R 156 Somstxxs. 1980 Yield canker 2 bu. acre Stem Fungicides' (rates acre) I. No treatment ............ 2. Benlate 8 oz. ............ 3. Benlate 8 oz. + Penetrator 3.9 3.7 2.3 17.2 17.9 21.2 4. Mertect 340F 8 fl. oz .... 5. Mertect 340F + Penetrator 6. Bravo 500, 3 pt. ......... LSD (P - 0,05) IAll fungicides applied at / in. 0olume. 3.5 18.5 3.1+ 3.6+ - 3.2 19.6 3.3 17.1 0.6 NS pod and 1l7days 0.8 26 later. Penetrator use rate changes with spras 2Rated 1-5, where I = no disease and 5 = all plants dead. IRating for disease: I - none found to 5 - \ers sexerel, infected. Values with + follo, ing are significantly more susceptible as compared to Iracy M. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Significance of Agricultural Exports JOE H. YEAGER, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology THE 1960's were marked by large commodity surpluses in this country which kept farm prices low into the 1970's. However, demand for farm products increased fairly rapidly in some countries as incomes increased. World crop production in 1972 was short and excess grain stocks decreased and at the same time the volume of U.S. agricultural exports increased. They almost doubled from 1973 to 1974 and have continued to increase. Therefore, U.S. agriculture has come to depend to a greater extent on foreign markets. This presents some important questions. Just how important are exports to farmers? How much of our land area is being used to produce for exporting? What is the significance of the growing trend in farm commodity exports to the overall economy? Ag Exports Increase In 1970, the U.S. exported $7.3 billion of agricultural products, see table. By 1979 this figure increased to almost $35 billion and in 1980 was $41.3 billion. Thus, exports in recent years were almost six times, in terms of dollar value, what they were in 1970. Total domestic exports of all products for the U.S. have also increased during this time period. The proportion that agricultural exports are of total exports has not changed greatly. Concessional exports under government-financed programs in calendar year 1980 declined. Major increases in quantity of agricultural exports have not been uniform for the major farm products. Greatest increases in exports since 1970 have been registered for meat and meat products, poultry and poultry products, grains and feeds, vegetable oil and oilseeds, fruits and vegetables, and cotton and linters. A decline has occurred in the export of dairy products since 1970. Japan was by far the major country for our agricultural exports in 1980 with purchases of over $6 billion. Japan accounted for 15% of total U.S. farm-produced exports. Other major countries that bought U.S. agricultural exports were the Netherlands, Soviet Union, Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, Republic of Korea, and United Kingdom. Rising incomes in developing countries have made increasing purchases possible. In 1980, leading markets for U.S. agricultural products shifted significantly. Sharp increases in exports to Mexicoand China more than offset a decline from suspension of sales to U.S.S.R. However, Japan continued to be the leading market followed by West Germany. U.S. Share of Exports Not only have U.S. agricultural exports increased in recent years, but our share of world agricultural exports has grown. The U.S. share of world agricultural exports grew from 12.7% per year in 1951-55 to 16.6% per year in 1975-79. The U.S. accounted for almost three-fourths of the increase in total world grain exports between 1970-72 and 1977-79, about onehalf of the increase in world wheat exports, and 85% of the increase in coarse grain exports. It is estimated that at present the U.S. accounts for somewhat over 50% of world grain exports, almost 40% for wheat, and more than 60% for coarse grains. With increasing exports, the acreage used to produce crops and export products has advanced. In 1970, USDA reported that 72 million acres out of a total of 293 million acres of cropland harvested, or 25% were used to produce farm exports. In 1979, onethird of our cropland harvested acres was used to produce exports. In recent years, exports have taken a major share of total production for certain crops. For wheat, exports have accounted for about 58% of production, for soybeans 40%, for cotton 51%, for corn 33%, and for grain sorghum 33%. Benefits From the standpoint of the contributions made through exports, the American farmer with his high level of efficiency and productivity has made this country the breadbasket of the world. Agriculture is one of the few remaining industries that can compete successfully with producers in other parts of the world. Agricultural exports have also made a tremendous contribution to the U.S. balance of trade. Since 1967, the agricultural sector has been the principal source of earnings from trade. In the markets for nonagricultural goods and services, more has been spent than earned since 1968. Thus, agricultural exports have made it possible to finance increasing deficits in markets, in particular to increase the imports of oil. Farm product exports not only have benefited farmers, but they have also generated employment, incomes, and purchasing power in the nonfarm sectors. As the U.S. has become more involved in world trade, it has also become more vulnerable to changing world, conditions. Farmers must not only take into account what happens domestically, but they must keep up on world conditions affecting agriculture. Price instability in grain markets has risen in the past several years. International shifts in supply and demand conditions, changes in foreign government policies, and fluctuating exchange rates influence the farm sector. In total, they also have their effects on the domestic economy. This situation must be taken into account in our food and agricultural policy. In summary, our highly efficient and productive agriculture has not only the opportunity to continue to contribute to our balance of payments and provide a dependable supply of wholesome food for the American consumer, but also the potential for improving the lot of mankind. VALUE OF TOTAL EXPORTS, AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPORTS, U.S., SELECTED YEARS Year ending June 30 Total exports Mi. Dol. 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... 27,135 42,590 106,218 113,128 118,944 141,154 178,578 216,592 Agricultural exports Total Percentage of total Mi!. Dol. Pct. 23 6,229 17 7,259 21 21,884 22,997 20 20 23,636 29,384 21 19 34,745 19 41,256 Agricultural imports Mi. Dol. 4,087 5,770 9,310 10,992 13,439 14,805 16,725 17,366 Excess of agricultural exports over imports Mil. Dol. 2,142 1,489 12,574 12,005 10,197 14,579 18,020 23,890 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 7 , 9 Chromobacterium violaceum: An Opportunistic Pathogen Associated 9 a "r9 with I .. Animal Wastes WT BLEVINS, R.L. TAYLOR JR., EMILY C. SMITH, and J A TUCKER P Department of Botany, lant Pathology, and Microbiology Violet pigmentation of colonies of Chromohbaarterium violaceum. IN LATE SUMMER of 1978. a Kentucky vouth contracted a rare infection w hile vacationing with his famils in Clearwater, Florida. Ihree-year-old Matthew Carey was suddenly struck by a high feer, and folloxwing hospitalization for 6 days in Fort Pierce, Florida, was transferred to the University of Kentucky Medical Center where treatment xwas continued. Cultures from blood and material from the throat grew: a Gram-negative (by the Gram-stain procedure) rod-shaped bacterium xw hich showed purple or xiolet colonies on growth media and was subsequently identified as Chromohacterium violaceum. Disease symptoms were a fe\er of 105 F. large skin lesions, swollen index finger(later amputated), lesions in the lungs and li er (as revealed by X-rays). pneumonia, and diarrhea. Ihe patient also dcxelopcd a bone infection (osteomyelitis) in the left knee after 25 days: following drainage of the knee abscess from xwhich the bacterium was isolated, the patient responded to the massixe dosage of antibiotics (chloramphenicol, gentamicin, carbenicillin, ticarcillin) he had been recei\ing. The patient was discharged after 55 days of hospitalization. This incident is one of the most thoroughly documented cases of chromobacteriosis. More recentl\ (.Januari, 1981), the Morbidity and Mortalit\ Weekly Report (Center for Disease Control. Atlanta. Georgia) presented a similar case in I-ampa. Florida. in which a 49-year-old man (a near-droxnini4 victim 6 weeks prior to symptoms) was hospitalized for 4 weeks with chromobacteriosis before recoxering. Resistance of C. violacerum to sexeral anti- biotics emphasizes the importance of rapid diagnosis. Isolates of C. violacer screened by the authors have demonstrated resistance to the penicillins, including carbenicillin, which is frequently used in treatment of Gram-negative infections. The organism is sensitive to tetracycline, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and gentamicin. Gentamicin is commonly used to treat chromobacteriosis. but the authors have observed spontaneous mutation of isolates to gentamicin-resistance, which may account in part for the longevity of reported infections. Fewer than 30 cases of chromobacteriosis have been reported in humans since the first report in 1927. Infections have occurred in Malaysia, Panama, West Africa, Vietnam, and France, with at least 10 cases reported in Southeastern United States. C. violaceum is very sensitive to refrigeration and may reflect its reported occurrence only in warm climates. Identification has been primarily based on the violet or purple pigment, see figure, of colonies of bacteria growing on a nutrient agar. Non-pigmented isolates have been recently reported and are usually misidentified by clinical laboratory technicians: thus chromobacteriosis max be much more prevalent and historically a greater problem than was once thought. Several of the chromobacteriosis victims reportedly had previous contact with stagnant or polluted water, especially water which had received animal or feedlot wastes. Strains of C. violaceum were more often detected by enrichment downstream from farms discharging excessive wastes or having high organic runoff into the streams. Hog lots and lagoons receiving swine wastes may contain the organism, emphasizing the potential for infections in swine. Chromobacteriosis was first reported in 1905 as causing septicemia in a water buffalo in the Philippines. Since that time, infections have been reported in swine, cattle, monkeys, dogs, cats, mice, and humans. In 1950, an outbreak was reported in Georgia which caused over 60 swine fatalities; however, the disease is not highly contagious, as crossinfection did not occur between infected and healthy pigs. Several zoos have also experienced sporadic cases of chromobacteriosis, and the source of infection was attributed to contaminated water or soil. C. violaceumr strains isolated from soil and water by the authors are not as virulent as clinical isolates from documented chromobacteriosis cases when tested in mice, suggesting that highly virulent strains in these environments may be uncommon. Although systemic infections by C. violaceur, are rare, the severity and high mortalit\ rate for both human and livestock victims emphasize the importance of rapid diagnosis. Ihe existence of strains which do not show the characteristic purple pigmentation is of concern to clinicians, and symptoms associated with the disease and or the occurence of purple pigmentation by a clinical isolate, especially in the Southeast, should alert one to the possibility of infection by C. violaceurm. AlahIama)Agricultural lE.perinewnl Stalion ROS I 'XGiIANDINSate tornone-like Su bxtance derixed front dictal x essentijal fltx acids a t%PC Of poi unxl urated tat I.at xxhich the bodx needs for normal gi oxx th and dcx elopmuent. Prostaglandins aire produced b\ almost ex erx tissue. As normal co nstituents iii the body, thex modulate a xarierx of ph\ siological processes, including reproduIC tion, kidnex function, inflammation, im munitx. and cat diox axcular function. A, poxx cr1 iidrugx. thlex ate used for uch pi ohlen as the sxnehi oni/ation of estrus in eattIe and the healing of gasti c ulcers in ho m11aiS. Receiit[x\, researchers in thle N utrition Laboratot x in the Depairtment of Home F conomiex Research, Alabama Agricultur al Experimicnt Station hax e found that txxo of t hese Comnpou nds. prostagla nd in Fl (13G17F and] prostagfandin F2a (1t&of are present in human milk. _Fhe refationship bctxx een these Compounds and thle tx pe of tat in thle diet of tuiniig mothers hax, been ix csti gated. Dur ing the hx drogenation Or hardening prOCCS.x P I Research Associate interviewing mother with baby. Prostaglandins in Human Milk MARGARET CRAIG-SCHMIDT, SAM FAIRCLOTH. AlILY LiVANT and % ARGARET WICKWIRE. -epartmeri of Home FEnemics Researc6 JOHN WE ETE, Departmeitt of Botary Plant Painelogy, and Microb elogy of edfi ble oils, thei chemnical structure of soime of the tat is afteired. Nonpfix iofogical compounds caffed treout tattx\ acids are totrmedf. I hie production of pi oxtaglandinx in the bodx ix thought to be inhibited bx these i at.t-attx acids founld in lxxdrogenll ated fatl I bus, it xxax piropoxed thfat the t.\ PC of fat iii the maternal diet could influence thle COnIcenti ationl iOt pro'tal-andlii in humnan mil k. !in the cx pci iment Suppor ted b\ a USI) \ SFA \onipetitixe Grant. eight nursing itothecrs xxtl2iiimoth-old ha biex xx crc Pt o ided \\lilt food f oi t\\ xxii periods, I fie mealx foi one per iod xxerc identical to those in tile second petriod except foi- the tx pe of falt thex contained. H xdi ogenated fatts. xuch ats mat caine. fiiiitening. and fix dioixenatcd xalad oil. xxCF etSc xd iii pi epairing the meals fot one pcitod: nonhxdi ogitted SOurces Of' fat xtich as butier, lild. id COj-1nOil xxere axed ini piepat ing the meats for the other pciriod. One-halt of' the xuii tcts xx crc gix ci the diet pi cpai ed xxh ixdiogcnlatcd fatl iti firxt, xx hitc the other half xxeic cix en the 1nonhx drogenated- diet firSt A\ 2-dax period inl xxhich xSubjects could conxu mce diets ot' tfir oxwni choice x"iax afloxxed betxx en the tx i dictarx pciriodx. Saniplex oif milk xx crc hand-exprexxed bx each subject altei the moring iioIisiiIigl I)a\ I tfirough [)ix% 5 of the txxit dietarx pciriodx. MIilk ximples xxcrc alxso taken on f)ax 6. tile dax folloxx ing each dlietat\ petriod. As xfioxxii iii table 1, the 0001 -fattx acid Contenit xxax Mtich foxxcr in the diets Prepared xxitfi bUttei and othci r inihdiogenlated fatts thianii i a in the dficix containing maigat inc and othcr h\ diii -cnated fatx I xBitiF 2. POax Ii xxi. \\I, f\IT xi xM K \II DI KINi, IAP xiMi xi \t xi[ fii d oat Prostagf.andin iinnix di acnated Perioad ot i\ i c ite di citc tot itallpit \s. 1 1.(0 fi hciutai niilk xampfes collected during the time tile mothetrsx\ci e conISoniFuc1L these i\ drogeniated fat diets continned at higher cx\ el of irt-, attx alcidx than the milk collected duiiing tile id of tutupet It*dd ogenated fat consumption (2.2( xx 6.f ,).I)uriiig the pcioad of h\ drogeniated filt cons[1uption, the amnount of frall Ii ttx (1.0' tc in the milk efece the amniutt of ttrait tatiacids, in the dict otthe mothierx,oi thle picxiitoxs dax. fic proxtaglanudins" PG 1-2a and PG(I: 6_ \cic x e ound in detectable quaintitiex ini thle Sit Iptes 0 it Lhunma1inmilIk. t Ifc 2. Nit di fftceit cc, xx c found betxx ccii the lcx clx it ciitlici of ci these pi utiglandins in iefationxhip to tile tx pe of falt (hxdIogenIaicd xx. ttitnltxdrtcnated) in the mnatet nal diet. I box.' t1coo fauxt acids in the amiont nritimatlx- consrmeuf bx imotfhcrs do rotii ppear to exert iiil influence oit the lcx l iot Prouttaglaindinix ii acitfs prig nil) PGjF (p& Til .... .... 12 ± 15* 147 t 13 In I I =I 1~ 4 ~ **\ialtiexi iaii+ S.F-.\1 iiie I \illi1i kIxx(, ii~ )i -i iI xi N1u K D( imixi Fxi tIi A.) I \ it M x I\I Kt xi D ix ix Ni I Pt ROtto \txi ) lI \i x I Pett iot otf nth-\ di igciiatetf tilt citflsiti ut xPt liii, t t ,Vin PuIiti f ttlix iii u talt t Iiiiuintpi climiiiiisiig :iiiteij Iin -l. Pi t. * f0.7 if.9 I l indict tat diet- ht ian niilkMl1t 4 2 0. 3.9 1.8 I 7.ft 8.8 IT 1 hanitian itilk. Pt oxuaglandinx, in hiunian itilk max, plax anl Important iiole iil the gastmoinestiitaf tract ott the intamit Siimdiex in xx hich aiita model xx\CF uISet imidicalt that pi itStagamtxetrc ereionx, gaxtiotiiiCan dJillx affect miitilitx amid the absomptiuin itt ctenitITmi t mcnix. I hisx. tflie piexeilice ift tfmcxe actixe CtiipitLiitdx iil titian milk max, be aitticm xxaxtin xx tiefi nlttire piox ides lot- tile Piroper ititi ixhiteit ott tile breaxt-ted mutant. 4................ .5.................. 6 .................. Mean 130 1.6 50testinat 5.6 9 tt 6. 1 If cid, i nit piti int fie tital tintx f.8 * 1 rans Iiititf citd, iii diet olill tilk. I /a/tha iaAg a i(' ta1'(I xpefiiau'tt S')faiiti In. roots/ cu. in. soil 60 50 40 30 20 I0 CORN SORGHUMSUDANGRASS Roots Prevent Leaching F. LESLIE LONG, USDA-Dept. of Agronomy and Soils 16 12 system can virtually eliminate nutrient leaching on soils like those used in the test. The results also indicate that adding needed fertilizer actually reduced leaching loss because root growth is stimulated and this increases uptake of nutrients. Research in recent years has shown progress in increasing rooting depth, but little is known about the amount of roots necessary to prevent leaching. This question has been studied in the Auburn rhizotron where roots of plants growing outside can be observed through a vertical glass wall in the underground portion of the facility. The soil used in these studies was a Marvin loamy sand (Ap-0 to 12 in., A2-12 to 28 in., and B-28 in. or more). Nutrient movement was monitored by analysis of successive soil solution samples taken at several depths every 48 to 72 hours during the growing season. Supplemental irrigation was applied as needed to maintain the soil near field capacity. Root measurements were made three times a week at depths of 6, 10, 16, 24, 32, and 40 in. Corn was the test crop in one study and sorghum-sudangrass in another. 60 16 50 40 30 20 I10 4 24" 12 24 " 60 50 40 30 20 10 20 E 50 100 140 4 20 60 100 140 40" 16 12 8 40" When nitrogen was applied at 220 lb. per acre, corn roots took up nitrate before it reached 32 in. With 440 lb. of N used, the nitrate was removed before it reached the 40-in. depth. Sorghum-sudangrass roots removed nitrate from the soil solution similarly to corn-before it reached the 40-in. depth at the rate of 440 lb. N per acre. There was one important difference, however, as shown in the graphs: The root density of sorghum-sudangrass was only about 30% as much as with corn. It is not known if a corn root density as low as that of the sorghum-sudan would have been as effective. Root density differences between the two crops are believed to be due, at least in part, to the "turn over" time of sorghumsudangrass roots in comparison with corn roots. Sorghum-sudan roots die and new ones form much quicker than do corn roots. Consequently, for the same number of roots at any given time, a greater volume of soil is exploited. The maximum density of roots 60 days after planting was 60 in. length per cubic inch of soil for corn, but only 16 in. per cubic inch with sorghum-sudan. The corn roots did not do well in the A2 soil horizon, which had a pH of 5.0. This soil appeared to be slightly toxic to the corn roots and the maximum density was only about 10. Roots that got through the A2 increased in the B horizon. Sorghum-sudan roots were less affected by the A2 horizon and reached a maximum density of about 4. When harvested at maturity, the aboveground portion of corn contained about 20% more N than was applied at the 220 lb. per acre rate, and about 75% as much as was applied at the 440 lb. rate. With sorghum-sudangrass, the aboveground portion contained about twice as much N as was applied at the 220 lb. rate and about the same as was applied at the 440 lb. per acre rate. Uptake of potassium by sorghum-sudan roots was sufficient to prevent any appreciable accumulation of K at any depth. Uptake of calcium and magnesium was sufficient to virtually eliminate any leaching below 32 in. Under fallow conditions, increasing the N rate caused an increase in leaching of K. Results of the Auburn studies indicate that nutrient leaching can be virtually eliminated on such soils by maintaining an active deep root system. Furthermore, crop fertilization does not necessarily increase leaching. DAYS AFTER PLANTING Root density of corn and sorghum-sudangrass at 6, 24, and 40 in. deep. SOUTH ALABAMA SOILS of the Coastal Plain are coarse textured and low in organic matter and water-holding capacity-factors that favor leaching. The soils are also low in natural fertility, and high rates of fertilization are required for most crops to achieve economic yields. These factors combine to create a high potential for nutrient leaching. Furthermore, the subsoils are often sufficiently acid to be toxic to root growth or so dense as to physically prevent root penetration, or both. Consequently, rooting is often limited to the plow layer. As a result, the plow layer is soon depleted of most available water, and nutrient uptake is limited unless frequent rains occur or irrigation is applied. Fortunately, an active deep root system can reduce leaching and increase fertilizer-use efficiency by taking up water and nutrients from deep in the soil and transporting them to the aboveground portion of plants. In fact, USDA-Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station studies indicate that maintaining an active deep root MOST 10 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 1978-79 SURVEY of 235 homemakers in Montgomery and Elmore counties was conducted by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station in an attempt to find the answers to these questions. What is quality in upholstery fabrics? What clues can you use to evaluate upholstery fabric quality? Personal interviews were used to determine whether consumers did perceive differences in quality among six cotton or cotton blend print upholstery fabrics. The fabrics differed in color and design, type of weave, thread count, weight, finish, and fiber content, table 1. Sample swatches of each fabric were mounted on white cardboard. These swatches were examined by each respondent. Labels on each contained information which would have been available to the consumer in a retail store. The respondents were asked for their perception of the quality of each fabric. They were then asked what clues or characteristics were used in making their judgments of quality. Findings and Discussion Respondents did perceive differences in quality among the six fabrics, table 2. All but one were rated as good or excellent in A Per ceptions of . Quality of Uph( dlstery Fabric ROL L. WARFIELD e Economics Research Af/l TABLE 1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF Six UPHOLSTERY FABRICS Physical Fabrics characteristic Fiber content Thread count (yarns/inch) Warp:*.......... Filling ........ F D E C A B 100% 50% Poly- 100% 100% 50% Poly- 100% Cotton ester/50% Cotton Cotton ester/50% Cotton cotton cotton 42 58 104 54 Sateen 40 47 Plain 94 51 Sateen 60 50 Plain 76 71 Plain (chintz) 5.0 Blues/browns Glazed, Scotchgard Type of weave ........ Plain Fabric weight (oz./yd. 2 ) ..... Background color......... Finish ........ quality by 60-70% of the respondents. Fabric C, a plain weave 100% cotton, received a higher number of excellent and a lower number of poor ratings than did other fabrics. In contrast, the quality of Fabric E, a 50% polyester/50% cotton plain weave fabric, was rated as good or excellent by only 33% of the respondents. The respondents were also asked, "what clues or characteristics did you use in making this judgment of quality?" Color and designrelated clues to judging fabric quality centered primarily around whether or not respondents liked the fabric. The fact that few people liked the looks of Fabric E seemed to be the main reason for the low quality rating. Many consumers indicated that fabric weight was a characteristic used in evaluating quality, with a heavier weight denoting higher quality. However, their perception of fabric weight does not appear to be very accurate. For example, 23 respondents indicated Fabric F was heavy while only 16 said Fabric B was heavy. Though Fabric F was firm and tightly woven, it was actually the lightest the weight fabric while Fabric B vWas second heaviest. Respondents may have thought of weight as primarily an indication of either closeness of the yarns in the fabric or fabric firmness, or both. The information-related clues included label information about fiber content, finishes, care, and durability. In general, the respondents seemed to associate cotton with good quality. For those who took note of label information, Scotchgard, a stain repellent finish, was considered desirable. The terms vat dyed and preshrunk were also felt to be indications of quality. It must be noted, however, that approximately one-third of the respondents failed to mention any label-related information as indicators of fabric quality. Summary This study points to some of the criteria people use in making judgments of quality and in differentiating among similar, but not identical, upholstery fabrics. Some people apparently did not use even the limited amount of readily available information on the label. This points to a need for increased effort in consumer education concerning quality features in upholstery fabric. 11 6.5 7.1 White 5.9 7.3 5.8 Beige Offwhite Green Wine Scotch- Scotch- Scotchgard gard gard TABLE 2. FREQUENCY OF RESPONSES AND MEAN QUALITY RATINGS 1 FOR CONSUMER EVALUATIONS OF SIX UPHOLSTERY FABRICS Fabric A B C D E F .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... Excellent 25 31 56 35 15 45 Good 109 128 109 111 58 112 Fair 66 54 52 48 88 49 Poor 26 13 12 32 64 23 Mean qualit rating 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.1 2.8 'The question was "How would you rate the overall quality of this fabric?" 2 Quality was evaluated on the following scale: 4= Excellent; 3 - Good; 2 = Fair; 1 = Poor. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Residual Nitrogen from Alfalfa Adequate for Following Cotton Crop C.C. KING, Department of Agronomy and Soils W.B. WEBSTER and V.H. CALVERT II, Tennessee Valley Substation WHEN AN ALFALFA stand plays out, it still has a payoff left. It can be turned under to provide all the nitrogen needed for a cotton crop that follows. That was a major finding in arotation test by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station at the Tennessee Valley Substation. The test to measure the residual effect of nitrogen fixed by alfalfa was undertaken because of Alabama farmers' resurging interest in producing alfalfa. Cotton was chosen as the test crop because (1) it is a major crop in the Tennessee Valley, and (2) it is a non-legume and could therefore benefit from the residual nitrogen. Test Following Alfalfa An alfalfa field that had been harvested for hay the previous 3 years was turned in fall 1978. The following spring (1979) an experiment was begun consisting of three main treatments: 1. Cotton was planted the first, second, and third springs after the alfalfa was turned -1979, 1980, and 1981. Nitrogen rates of 0, 30, 60, and 90 lb. of N per acre were applied each year shortly after the cotton was up to a stand. 2. Corn was planted the first season after the alfalfa was turned, followed by cotton the second and third years. No nitrogen was applied to the corn, but rates of 0, 30, 60, and 90 lb. of N were tried with the cotton each year. 3. Corn was planted the first 2 years, followed by cotton in 1981. Rates of nitrogen were the same as for treatments one and two. In the test, one-third of the area was planted to cotton in 1979, two-thirds in 1980, and the entire area in 1981. Plots not planted in cotton during 1979 and 1980 were planted to corn. The areas in corn were cropped uniformly each year, and no commercial nitrogen was applied. Lime, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur were broadcast prior to planting each spring, according to soil test recommendations. In addition, boron (B) was applied to .Herbicides used for cotton each season were Treflan® at 1 pt. per acre applied preplant incorporated and Cotoran® 80W at 2 lb. per acre at planting. In 1981, cotton was treated with a post directed application of a tank mix of 1 lb. Caparol® plus 2 lb. of MSMA® per acre. The herbicide for corn was a broadcast application of AAtrex® 80W at 2.5 lb. per acre at planting. Cotton and corn were cultivated as needed each year. Five to 12 applications of insecticides were used each year for insect control, primarily lygus bugs and bollworms. Effectiveness of residual nitrogen for 3 years after turning alfalfa is illustrated by the graphs showing results for 1979, 1980, and 1981. In 1979, the first year after alfalfa, any commercial nitrogen applied resulted in a decrease in seed cotton yields. Each higher rate of N caused a progressive yield decrease, so that the 90-lb. per acre rate produced almost 600 lb. less seed cotton than where no nitrogen was used. Thus, for the first year the residual nitrogen supplied sufficient nitrogen for cotton. In 1980 there was a yield response to 30and 60-lb. N rates. The 60-lb. per acre rate increased yield approximately 450 lb. of seed cotton. Obviously the residual nitrogen was not adequate for maximum yields of cotton by the second year following alfalfa. Rotation Showed Advantages first year. By the second year, normal corn nitrogen rates are probably needed. Results Summarized Results of the tests can be summarized by the following conclusions: 1. In the clay loam soils of the Tennessee Valley, no commercial nitrogen should be applied to cotton the first year after turning an old alfalfa stand. 2. Most residual nitrogen from alfalfa is gone by the second year; consequently, normal nitrogen rates should be used for cotton. 3. Rotating cotton with corn results in increased yields over that of continuous cotton. the cotton each season at the rate of 0.3 lb. B per acre. In mid-April of each year, acid delinted seed of Stoneville 213 variety were planted at the rate of 15 lb. per acre in 40-in, rows on the cotton plots. Corn plots were planted in early April to Pioneer 3369A at a spacing of one kernel every 6 in. in 40-in, rows. The advantage of rotating cotton with corn is evident in the 1980 results. Cotton that followed corn consistently produced 130 to 220 lb. more seed cotton than where cotton was grown in 1979. The same trends showed up in 1981, with one exception: Cotton that followed 2 years of corn and received 90 lb. of N per acre yielded almost 3,650 lb. of seed cotton per acre. This was 230 lb. more than from 60 lb. of N. Again, the benefit of rotating cotton with corn was evident. The third year of continuous cotton yielded 340 to 510 lb. less seed cotton per acre than cotton following 2 years of corn. Corn yields without any commercial nitrogen were 96 bu. and 52 bu. per acre, respectively, in 1979 and 1980. The test was not designed to measure the effects of nitrogen fertilization of corn following alfalfa, but some general observations seem appropriate. Although the 96-bu. per acre yield is respectable, the corn exhibited nitrogen deficiency symptoms and probably would have responded to nitrogen fertilization the 12 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station M(I CHIN IIR ES I has been expressed appri ~ation inl that Nralue. Estabhi shed farmers are interested because appt eciationr of ical estate atlects the costs of expanding farm units as xx as making asailabie titianeli ces for oper ation of' the farm or pur chase ot additional land. t~on al mers are interested because appreciation influences, abilit\ to purchase land. Ins estors are interested because it atfeccts x alue of' real estate holdings plus relatix e feasibilitk ot alternatis e uses for t heit- ins est merit capital. As ciage per acre farm i cal estates aluies in Alabamna. as estimated b%USD A. increased 29l 1 durtng the last deeade. from S239 per acre in 1972 to S935 per aere in 198 1, figui 1. I his change more than douibled a ppreciation e\perienced in the pti or decade. 128, Since 1960, \ aloeC and rates of appreciation in aIloe for Ala bama closeix approxi mated those noted lot the U.S. H oxx e% the% wsei e er, Farm Real Estate Values in Alabama J.LADRIAN, Department of Agricunra Economtic and Rural Sociology -tK Amm T"M pi i[cec ci. it canl be used to Cialulae I Cail 4 FIG. 1. Average value per acre of U.S. and Alabama farm real estate, 1960-1981. genetall\ higher during the latter decade. Relatixc to the neighbor ing states of Gjeotgia. MIississippi. and I entiessee. rates ot appteeiatiott for Alabamna during the last decade exceeded rates t or Georgia (208((' arid I ennessec (22911(). but beioxx M ississippi (333 (). A similar r elationship existed amiionigthie states loit the last 5\ears. \erage real estate sallies fot these states in 1981 "xci e S915, S1.047. anid S1.024 for Georgia. MIississippi, and I ennessee. respectisels\ ('sing the data presetnted inl ligutl_ 1,Irates of change itt teal estate x alUes from thre preiotis seat xxetc calculated. ficure 2. Nominal or dollar rates of ehatige in s alue xxere genet ali\ highest during the 1970's xxithi 1973-74 ex idetci ng the largest chantge of 301 ' Hox\ c\ ci, anr anals sis o1 appriato inl teal estate \ allies x\oMild not be complete xx thorn c aluating the impact of inflation. 1That is. did s altCincirease mote rapidix than thle genet a[ pi ce lcx ei ot . aitet natix el\s x"as lain real estate a s a ble hedfge against inf lat ion1 AssumlingO thle C onsumeltll Pr ice Intdex. (('111)I is an adequate iviCaSUte olthe getteral Al/abamta Agricultural IsI)rt'if alues of' farm real estate. Appireciat ion %in %alueof Alabama ai m real estate excccdcd the rate of inflation in all eai s since 1960) except 1974-75x Nhen the real change in %alueC xx -3.81 " ' ,figure 2. WIhilc nominal changes as in xaluc Axcrc lar gest in the 1970's, teal changes dif lei ed little betxx cen the txxo decades. Simple ax ciages lot the nominal tates of change xxetc 9. 1(( atid 15.5( xxhue axerage teal rates of' change wxere 5.8(1 and 6. 8((' for thle 196271 and 1972-81 periods. ecspectix cl. In absolute terms real x,lttes increased 71( for 1902-71 anid 86(1(for 197281. 1 hese percentages eompare to the 128('1 ,ind 2911( changes in dollar xalues mnrti- o11cd piesOL, i15\. I buls. appieCiatlon In thle saluc of fairm real estate in Alabama has been sufficient to offset the effects of the geneiral rise in prices plus pros ide a miodel ate real incirease in asset xalue. I hec changes in real estate xalues experiettced in Alabama Plus increases in the ax erage si/c oif I-arms operated in the State haxc r esulted in suh st antiallx higher x alues for land and buildings pet operating unit. Axetage xaiucs per oper ating unit increased to S203.000 in 1981. a 3441, inetease from the S45.700 estimate lot 1972. 1 his compar ed Axith a 293( ( increase for utnits in the U.S., from S87,000 to $342,000 per operating, unit. Percentage change in value fram 30 24 18 12 6 0 0 Dollar or nominal change Real change (adjusted using CPI) 0 -6 60 65 70 Year FIG. 2. Real and nominal changes in Alabama farm real estate values from previous year, 1960198 1. 75 80 Stail/f .8 . '0 1 to 4i FIGS. 1. 2. and 4. Attractive, marketable Virginia pine trees: the tip moth larva tunnels in and kills buds, tips, and twigs; the pine tip moth overwinters as a pupa inside twigs attacked the A* previous season. -4, 4' f~ Pine Tip Moth A Pest of Virginia Pine Christmas Tree Plantations I HE .4 ihoiit thet 14 di% ii ich xpiiieiid mi - dax'. ailtci. hatched lii xac often lirsxt mine t\o in D ;-ar, e w( I Z iv-Ern on (c N cxxi needles then tuinnel into hudx ,nd xx het t he\ complete dec ~toxtem and ait lt ril. lopineiit .ixiill\ eIn1 1()1)1 C' I()Ns (f c I I I I I I I RIFF I ot local aind natiiinal rarkeix is ,in iidusttx oii increaii.o interest and imnportance in Alaihamai ,ind the South. Arttactixe. mai ketihl treex, figure I, canl he pirodiiced thiough inrenxixe plantation Culture of \r iroiniai pine. a n~aiix Souther n Species. In)teuxix eCulture includes planltino. Sheaing, Ptuning to iohtajit desiraihlc loirn. and conti ollintz xx eedx. dixeaise. ,ind insects. NininL the insect pests, the common 'Nantucket pitne tip moth repi exeitx a ntaiorcx er present problem l'oi groxxetx. I hie tip moth larx a. tiotre 2. tunnelx in and kills hudx. ripx. and txx ox. I hix Caiuxex undexi iahle hiranchn&', figure 3. poot- foiri. ,ind dixcoloted I oliage at dead tips, rexulting ox crall in linacCeptahle tr ees. Success in piCex ntinog tip moth dciaae depends orceatlx oni recognition aind knoxxledoge ol the insect's hahits. I he Nantucket pine tip moth is inacrixe during xx inter. spending, thix period ax a P pupai, figure 4. inside of txxigx attacked thc prCX ioux season. Thle xplil omith tlight n spairi about 2 xxeekx. Matic h 8-20l it the Auhut n latitude, hut muix he I to 2 xxeekxs eari ci in xouth Alahamla and correxpondinO \ laitei in north Alahatnai Inl thle Nlhurn x iciniitx. x 1Uhxeyuenrl mo1th llighi iOccuri late NI ax - eaTll\ June. laite IulxI - earlx Auguxt, and it light one in eat lx Septembher. I1 indicatex thait 4 generations pet xeaxon hix atfe poitxible it thle Au um11i latitude. I lie adult moth. ligure 5. ix xmall. 0. 2-M1 in. long. xx clipper-red xx ith ingx marked xx ih irreLulair grax handx. F-emales lax xitil la ttened. ox ,l egox. pri itarilx on tiecllex near the needle xheaith. In rexearch cotnducted hx the AIa harma Agricultural Ixperiinent Station. ec'gxetc fl xt found it lie field about 2 xA t xxcekx lolloxx itoinitial moth emet ocuce l'r the firsxt 1light and ahout I xx eec al'ter appearttnce ott the firxt moth in each oI the xuhxequent moth flight,, Fggix[latchecd in pupate. hase At points of larxal eriti xx hitixh iCrtusts Of t of1 huds, figure 6. oi\ ino external c\ iderce ot inteq~ation. I cnoth of the laix ,l dcx clopmnrlla pci iodx is 4-0 xx eekx. .Much ol passecd i liixd dcx clopino tile lil'c cx ce oft thc tip moth is uetl\x cot- buds aind t\\xSigx. cirrixe xtarocx aic pirotected xpiax ,,.Ii hioin %cntionail insecticidal ellectixe control obtain )xxth contact insecticide,,. hc timed to iceich thc applicarirnx x should i c_ lnerahic stagex. nexx I\ hit chlid lai\ x.e, eggs, and FIGS. 3, larva ox ipoxiting adults. 5. and 6. Damage undesirable from the tip moth branching. poor causes form, and discolored foliage at dead tips resulting in undesirable trees; the adult moth is 0.2 to 0.3 in. long with copper-red wings marked with irregular gray bands: at points of larval entry, usually at base of buds, whitish crusts of resin form, giving external evidence of infestation. 4 A labatra A1griurltural L XJerl-ttI SU11oi SINGLE-PERSON HOUSEHOLDS in the U.S. have increased in the last 20 years and will continue to increase. Single-person households spend a greater percentage of their incomes on-food purchases. Food purchases made by these households have shown to differ from those of multiperson households, Food habits of females employed outside the home have also been studied. Employed females use more convenience foods, have a greater tendency to purchase time- and labor-saving devices, and have different preferences for certain food items than unemployed females. Previous studies have assessed the dietary adequacy of single, female college students. Investigators have reported low intakes of kilocalories, thiamin, calcium, and iron. While knowledge does exist concerning food habits and dietary adequacy of singleperson households, employed females, and single, female college students, it is not known whether this information applies to single, professional women. Investigators at the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station have recently studied the food habits and nutrient adequacy of a group of 50 single, professional women from Anderson, South Carolina and Auburn and Opelika, Alabama. Forty-eight of the women held college degrees. Occupations included teachers, lawyers, pharmacists, and businesswomen. Each woman answered a food practices questionnaire and was given a 24hour food recall used to estimate nutrient adequacy. The average age was 26.5 years; height, 65.6 in.; weight, 124.5 lb. Years of formal education averaged 16.7 and annual income was $13,400. Ninety-four percent of the women were of normal/below normal body weight, yet 22% reported they were on diets to lose weight. Eighty-four percent of the females had daily physical activity patterns classified as light or moderate. The food practices questionnaire revealed that most of the women purchased a major supply of groceries for at-home use 1-2 times per month. All major grocery purchases were made in a supermarket. These single, professional women made infrequent use of convenience stores. The use of consumer aids while making major grocery purchases was surveyed, table 1. A majority of the women frequently used five of the possible eight aids. Making a food list was the aid most often used. Infrequent use of convenience stores and regular use of many shopping aids tended to indicate a high level of consumer awareness for this group of females. The level of consumer awareness was generally higher than for single-person households. Away-from-home food practices were also studied. Subjects ate a total of 20% of their meals outside the home. Lunch was the meal most frequently consumed away from home (32% of the time) and breakfast the least (5% of the time). Most meals eaten outside the home were consumed in a sitdown/service restaurant. Fast-food restaurants and vending machines were infrequently used. When asked why they ate away from home, table 2, the subjects indicated they most often ate out because it was easier than cooking. The estimated kilocalorie and nutrient intake and percentage of the 1980 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for the women are summaized in table 3. The average intake approximated or exceeded the RDA for all nutrients and kilocalories except iron and calcium. However, many of TABLE 1. USE OF CONSUMER AIDS BY SINGLE, PROFESSIONAL WOMEN WHEN PURCHASING FOOD FOR AT-HOME CONSUMPTION Make food lists Compare prices Read labels Purchase extra food on sale.......... Plan menus....... Use food coupons Use newspaper ads Consumer aidResponse Frequently Pct. 88 82 64 Seldom Pct. 12 18 36 40 44 50 68 72 60 56 50 32 . 28 Shop multiple stores. ......... ROBERT E, KEITH SANDRA B, FOSS Department of Home Economics Research TABLE 2. REASONS FOR AWAY-FROM-HOME PURCHASE OF FOOD BY SINGLE, PROFESSIONAL WOMEN Reason Easier than cooking ........... Frequently Pet. Seldom Pet. 48 54 the subjects failed to consume two-thirds of the RDA for calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamin, and kilocalories. Except for vitamin A, these are the same problem nutrients reported for single, college women. Statistical correlations performed between the questionnaire and diet intake data revealed a negative association between eating lunch away from home and quality of the diet (as lunches increased, diet quality decreased). Poor food selection during lunch may be a possible explanation for the decreased quality of the diet. The infrequent use of convenience stores and regular use of shopping aids indicated a high level of consumer awareness in this group of women. Approximately one-fifth of the meals eaten by these females were consumed away from home; lunch being most frequently eaten out. Most women patronized a sit-down/service restaurant for these meals. Diets of some of the women were found to be low in kilocalories, calcium, iron, vitamin A, and thiamin. Thus, while being good shoppers, food choices for this group of single, professional women may not have been appropriate for their nutritional needs. Recreational 52 46 activity........... Change of routine . Saves time......... Eat out while shopping ........ Cheaper........... 46 38 36 8 54 62 64 92 TABLE 3. AVERAGE ESTIMATED DAILY ENERGY AND NUTRIENT INTAKES, AVERAGE PERCENT RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA) AND PERCENT FAILING TO. MEET Two-THIRDS RDA FOR SINGLE, PROFESSIONAL WOMEN Respondents Item Average intake Amt. RDA below 2/3 RDA Pet. Pet. Energy..1,985 kcal. Protein ... 72 g. Calcium ... 644 mag. Iron ........ 12.1 mg. Vitamin A .. 6,284 l.U. Thiamin ... 1.0 mg. Riboflavin .1.3 mg. Niacin..17.5 mg. Vitamin C .. 109 mg. 99 164 81 44 0 48 44 67 157 46 36 18 101 101 135 181 6 24 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 15 Auburn southernpea breeding research is aimed at developing varieties with resistance to blackeye cowpea mosaic virus disease. 11 11 o if 4 Alk = K? * 4 Breeding Southernpeas for Resistance to Blackeye Cowpea Mosaic Virus Disease C HARLES A W~ALKER and OYETTE L C HAMBLISS Department of HorI 0 11jure lRII'S DISE ASES are a xerioux limitatioin to the producetion of xouthernpeas. Sonie xarietiex are xo suseeptible to xvtrusex that eomplete erop failures max oecur. ILater platiiigs arc tioire subjeet to atiack thatn earlier onex. A major objeetix c of' the xouthert1pea breeding program of' the Alabana AL'iictiltural FExpert iient Staition has been the dcx clopment of x arietiex rexistant to one Or V more xirnxex. Southernpea plants are oiften found itnfected xx\ more than one xirux. Some 01 ith thexe double infections are not xerious. but there ix a serious one that proiduesx a dixease called "eowxpea stunt" that ean Cauxe sex ere x ield reduetiotn in eertain xarietiex. IThis I mportant double infection is caused bx a V Mxtuare Of eUuinher nmosaic xi rus (CNI\ atid blacke\ e coxxpea mosaic xirus (BI MV). I he latter has beetn described ax the moxt xerioiux xeedhoi ne xouthernpea x irus in the Southeastertn I.nited States. No knoxx n xouthernpea x arietx is resistant to C~MV. Theretore. resistatnee to eoxx pea hieh Stunt ean otil\ he found in x arietiex xx are resistant to HIM V. In the Auburn tests, Worthmore. a x atictx that ix irexistant or tolerant to sex cial xirusex. xxax found to alxo uxed in be rexixtant to HIMNV\. Thus. it xxNax Subxequent breeditig reseaieh. I best Utiliie this HIM \ resistance fin lo dcx eloping nexx xarietiex. it xxax neeesxarx to determine fioxx the rexixtance ix inherited. A croxs ),\as made hetxxeen \\orihmore and the xuxceptible xai tt\ Calif otrtia Blacker e ( No. 5). Rexultitng FI F2. and haekci oxx progerir xx ere xcreeted f or t exixtarice in a cottrolled etiirotinietital chatmbei. Leaf tixtie oit the xusceptiible x arietx Caltfornia Blackexe infected xxith BIMV wxas axed ax the ioculum xource. Infeeted trilolfate leax es xxcrc ground for making the mnoe ulum. xxhich xxax applied to primar\ leax cx of' xeedlings being xcreened. xxuhih dex eloped I nocuilatedf progeti x irus sx mptons xx ere ehaxxil ied as xuscepti ble. Thoxe xxhieh xhoxxed no xx tiptomx x ci c tested further to determine if thex \veie "carSGR(,iiiOF O iers" of1 the disease. Ical' tissue from these progenx xxNax then used to inoculate k nxx n susceptible seedlings. II thexe xeedlingx dexeMV xx mptonx the symnptonmless loped 131 etc rated ax susceptible. Inoculated plants xx ere plants that remained s\ miptomlexx and xk not cart ixr "ere classified as resistant. I he table xummartex the numbhet xot suscepti ble and resixtant plants in thle xarioux generaiionx derixed from the eroxx betx en Worthmore and Cialifornia Blacke e. All of the Califot ma Blackex e plats irux infection xhoxx ed xx miptomx of mosaic % follox ing i noeulation. None of the inoculated Wotthmore plantx xhoxxed xtrux x iiptomx and none of lie xx tipt omlexx Pla nt, pro% ed to he cari ets I hux. the Patreints used ere conxistent fin in the inheritanee xtUd\ xx disease t caction. Since all the F pla nix and all backci oxxex 1 to the xsusceptible pariecit California Mackcxc xx e xusccptible, it Axax cotneluded that the 13IM V resis~tance of \\orthmore is recexSix e to SLuxeepiibiltx I he F2 plantsx xcgrcgated in a i atlo 13 xnceptible to I resistant, and the hackerosx ol 1-1 plants to Worthmore segregated in a ratio of I susceptible to I resistatnt. I hus. the rexistance of W oithi more is cointrolled hx a xitngle reexxix e getie. Statistical analx ix of' data in lie 1: atid backei oxx generation,, indicated thai thle tatiox obtaitied xxece ot diffeient front thoxe expected. Auburn't tisouthct npea breeditng program is xeekitng to incorporate this resistance gene into x arieties under dex elopnient. I hie second cx ele has beeii completed finthe hackcroxs program toi traiixer resixtane from \\ort hmore toxUxSCept ihle xarietiex Kntuckle Purple IIitill and I-iecegreen. Resistant xeleetiotnx groxxn in field plots laxt S11 mer iii exhibited good x mxS iexixtatie. but additional hackCrossex xxill he made ito iecox et desired horticultutral tx pex. or i x(ik i Coxsrrx Mio.x\] \1iii Ri x( iFoN is Sit mimi , Paoofixx of X CROSS Hi I I XI\CIF oNi i ix () \(Ki) i No 5 x \ \' oi i i i iii \ aricix and progeax\ Calitornia Hiackexe No. 5..... WXortfumore......................... N\timber ot plants ohsers ed Ratio, xisu.eptihle to resoxatut 'Susceptible Resistat 1t 0 F, F2 F, L, progeox . . . .. . . .. . . proecox . . . .. . . . 5 ... X C alifornia lfaekcs e'No .. . X W'orthHiove.................. Not significatIi different from expected ratio. .1 ahainoi Agt~ricultural .v/ Iriotnet .Staiuon x. / 24 Breeding Low-Tannin Sericea for Resistance to Foliar Disease vj Veaci leaves on seicea line at right is one symptom of disease caused by Rhizoctrnia sp. appa- l-01 IAR fDfSFASI that shiossed tip onl loxs-taiinin set icea plants sexcrail x\eats ago added a ness pirobleim to research elI orts to dexeluip cesitable loss taniii sailtics. But thle Iiiidiiig of geinetic resstanlce amloti loss tannin planits shoxxs that tesistant xarietics cal iihe dcx eloped. Asex etc buildup of the disease, caused bx Rhi-m honia sp., occurred diiiing 1969 (in loss tatunul niiiserx Platnts of scriucca lespedc/ca (I s/c/i unca'ouu;. I lie affected plants sxcte being gross i in the \labarna Agiicultuial I \periiiieiit Station piroject that is cexotec toi breediiig loss -taiiiin xciiceas that non Id prcidUCe moire palata ble and tioie nut it ius orao-e. Notrmal, high-lannin sciucca is tesistant to the disease. But because ol its high tannin conteut it is lot ieadilx eaten b\ lix estock A expeliiictit at thl cPlant Breeding lassec. inl thle spi itig ot 19711 nit. I ali rent in comparison with plants at left that show no symptoms of the disease. Fhec disease a ppeared onl ssL'cept ic lines, inl August 19711 LI inS that \\ere 'xii scept ilhle in 19710 also xx susceptible inl 197 1. H-ighietc taninii cintries xx ere alxsa \x resistai ilto ile disease. Sci ala Ii ad I551CC as Miucht anilin as thle mean oif thle loss -tanlnin lines, Rainfall. Humidity Involved I Silil 2. IDii \,i R iii,xsioiRI r-0t Loss I SINSim1 I 51xxii iix, 19701-71 I iiicx Disease raiiniL_ Families PCI 17 1inis 1971 9711 2.9 3. 37 197o_-71 ie 2.6 3.4 4.4 2 3.6 410 Hugh tainlall ici hurnidlitx Occulte (flill-i in11Jtlx. \UiSics .and September 1969) aind 1971 ,incf cI in n I nII\. \UgUSt. aind Ocetober Ii Ri s(iio\ oii 82 1 ox\ I I Lix Dxx\i \sxo1 H i, iti 6 ix x Si sic I \ I 1is i I ( o Dlixi xi 1 " xii SI s(I Ii i I Iii I) In \ mi Iiim i ox se1 1970-71 N1i \\ call N1.i11iei ot lines 2. . . . 3..... ......... 0 3.6 Scale ot 1I (Ito 5 11, hCT 1 0 no disease s\ nip,\ C Nci ions and 5.0I se c s\iiipiiiis. xi and Suippotrts pooi atiial Pci-o aie. liii1 \\]ll aiiic iiiciii hi Fungus Appeared on Foliage ihtnilns I he I uncusI caUsiu the disease xas first I 2.............ine notie(] ljust aboxe the solline oii foliage oif mnatuic plants during flcixxeriig aiid onI thriough lull MatUritx stages. \%lien therc................ 2.2 ...... ssas high temperature aiid luitiiicitx . opti2. ....... mlum condfitioiis for disease dec chpmciit. the f ungus gi cx uip thle stems. killintg leax es 2.7 ...... andc floC[Si but iiot thle entiie Plant. lLiitS 2.8 ...... 11 ...... appeared to gruixs noi malls cluiring spriig folloss ing a sex c disease build up the pre2 .... sioux, sum meri atid fall. 3. 5 ...... 37 ...... Resistaiice of' loxs -tanron senecca to R/i...... 3. -n oiiuui sp. s" s studied t rout 1969tbrougli 1972. 1-i-lini 6.1000loss-tanniin iursers plant. 4.2...... 82 xx cie selected that remained free of clis 4. ....... 4.5 ...... eaises\ inptomis lollo\s itig the 1969 epideiiiic. 47...... Self pollinated piogeics of these 82 losstannin plaints, and of 6 higfi-tantiin entiies Scale of I (Ito 5 0.I"here 1.1 0n (iticlud ing Serala) xxcre esta bltslied in an tonis and 5. -1sc cicSsn mpiois _5 '1 4 4 1 3 9 7 10l 6 9 6 o d isease ss in p 1971). 1hie disease "xas sce rc thenr, hut inl 1972 condition,, xxcie e lats cl dix during most of the sUinme11t and tall and there xas c little disease, D isease sex ci ix 5 aticd xxideix aniong thle 82 loss tannin lines dui inu the 2 x\cars, 19701 71. table 1. Some lines apparentix had ich lex cls ol' resistatnce, hut most xxcrc susceptible. Since these 82 lines xx dc\ eloped Itol crc io the 82 plants that xxcrc irated resistant in thle 1969 nurserx , thle patrent plants ol thle susceptible lines appai enth\ escaped the disease in 1969. Vx heii the 82 loss-tannin lines "sere analx ted as three families (based (on parentage), there xx ere also differences in resistance among the families. table 2. These dlatai indicate genetic differences among loxs-tannin lines and lamnilies for resistance to Ri?/noctoi sp. Sintce high-ta nnini senecea is resist ant to the disease orgainism, thle tannin a pparent[l\ protects against the fuinguIs. I hese results indicate that the genetic resistance amiong loss-tannin pliaits is Caused bx a mechanismii separate from taniiin-induced resistance. Alhm /aratifIriciuiral Ex'pcriotmw .Sttot J.R SNOW Department of Fisheries ara Alled Acuac ,itures 11 a.. 50.000 per acre. Results of this trial are shown in table 1. Densitv of the 50,000 rate i as reduced about 50'( halfway through the 100-day period. At that time the fingerlings had grown to an a\erage size of 5 in. Catfish fingerlings make slow growth during the winter months at Auburn. The same ponds listed in table I were restocked in mid-November at rates of 10,000, 20,000. and 30.000 6-in. fingerlings per acre. Feeding was done at a rate of Ir' of their body weight when water temperature was above 500 F. After 120 days the ponds were drained and the yields measured. Weight gain averaged I 1.1 % for the the lowest rate, 18.8E7 for the middle rate and 11.8' for the highest one. Feed conversion (S-alue) aseraged 4.9. 3.8, and 3.8 for the respective densities. AVAILABILITY OF A RANGE of sizes of channel catfish fingerlings permits a pro- ducer of market-size fish greater flexibility in the management of grow-out ponds. Small fingerlings (4-in. total length) require a full growing season (Nlarch-Nos ember) to reach market size when stocked at about 3.000 per acre and fed an adequate ration. Stocking with medium-size (6-in.) fish can shorten the grow-out period by 2 months while use of large (8-in.) fingerlings may reduce it another 60 days. To have the desired size seed stock on hand w hen the grow-out pond is ready for stocking requires the producer to regulate growth so a specified size fingerling is ready according to a predetermined schedule. Catfish fry grosw rapidly when temperatures are in the faxorable range and food is abundant. Figure I illustrates the rate of growth made by catfish in fertilized ponds on the Auburn Fisheries Research Station at a rate of 60.000 per acre and fed supplemenAveroge wt. (g) 6 5 tally. At this light rate of stocking, some swim-up fry reached a total length of almost 3.7 in. in 6 weeks during June and July. Even at this low stocking rate, density had a noticeable effect on the rate of growth. Figure 2 depicts the size-density relationship in ponds stocked with I 2-day-old fr\. Differential survisal of the stocked fry, which was related to management of the rearing ponds, enabled a picture of the effect of fish density to be obtained. The smallest fingerlings, 2.7 in. in length and 2.59 grams a\erage weight. came from the pond with the highest numerical vield, 56,800 fingerlings per acre. The largest fish, 3.7 in. TL and 5.76 grams were obtained at a density of 7,200 per acre. Stocking density for small fingerlings can be as high as 200,000 fry per acre to obtain a 4-in. fingerling in 90 days of feeding if rates as high as 40 lb. per acre per da\ can safely be used. Since individual fish growth rate decreases as density of stocking increases, more time is required at this density for fish to reach the desired size. A substantial reduction in stocking densitv is needed to rear medium or large fingerlings. In a late summer-fall stocking trial at Auburn lasting 100 days, 3-in. fish showed a similar growth pattern to that in figure 2 when stocked at rates of 10,000, 25,000, and R1,IS I PO Slo( 1 While these results show in a general way the relationship between density and size reached over time, some refinement in the rate of stocking along with a predictable rate of survival, comparable feeding rates and water temperatures sill be needed to enable the producer to accurately schedule a specified size of fingerling to meet grow-out pond stocking needs. Average wt (g) I.\ . 9 10 20 30 40 50 Number harvested/acre (thous ) 60 FIG. 2. Relationship between average harvest weight and the number of small channel catfish fingerlings harvested after 42-45 days growth from first feeding. 4KI 3-1,H C. \1 M1oIM M Sll KIxo 3 2 Pond no. Sizi D Isi 1 i 3 Di[ iil, I OR G(RO\IH I 10 ) RiV, L\I I St iMMieR ND Fsi I OF 1980 Stocking acre Weight Number (lb.) 10.000 10.000 10.000 91.1 80.0 81.1 202.2 201.1 199. 1 429.1 404.2 406.2 ( Recosers acre Weight Number (lb.) 9.190 9,260 8.860 23.420 22.460 22.960 45,115 48.760 43,670 1,267 I 104 1.051 1.944 2.210 2,063 2,490 2.616 2.342 Gain in wst. Feed As. sie Length, per acre pet Percent comersion lb. 1000 in. day (lb.) survival (S-alue 137.9 119. I 121.1 77.3 98.4 89.8 55.2 53.8 53.8 7.9 7.6 7.6 7.0 7. 1 6.9 5.8 5.7 5.7 11.9 10.2 9.7 17.4 20. 1 18.6 20.6 22.1 19.4 91.9 92.6 86.8 93.7 93.8 91.8 90.3 97.5 87.3 1.47 1.72 1.82 1.62 1.37 1.21 I 2 3 4 Weekly fish sample 5 6 25,000 25,000 25,000 50.0001 50.000 50.000 FIG. 1. Average growth rate of channel catfish fry stocked at a rate of 60,000 per acre and fed supplementally. Weekly sample was collected by seining and numbered 60 specimens. Approximatels 50 ' of the fish stocked sere remo ed bs seining after 50dais ofgrowsth. lhe number and weight remoed are included in the totals. Aa/Iamaci Agric ulIurail I'perieni'ti SiatimOi, INTERNATIONAL TRADE has become a powerful force in shaping the welfare and destiny of the United States. As recently as 10 years ago, exports and imports amounted to only 7% of the nation's 'gross national product (GNP). By 1975, trade had quadrupled and equaled 14% of the GNP. Current patterns of world trade, including trade in wood products, are the result of a complex interaction of country and regional cost advantages, tariffs, quotas, and transportation costs. There has been a great demand for forest products in the world market. In 1979, the value of world exports of wood products was $45.6 billion (FAO, 1981). During the same year the U.S. exported forest products including pulp, paper, and paper products valued at $7.5 billion while at the same time imported forest products valued at $10 billion. Europe and Japan are the major foreign markets for U.S. wood and wood products. It is an economic advantage to the U.S. industry that foreign markets seek out the higher grades, larger sizes, and thus highvalue U.S. timber production. The United States imports average-value softwood lumber from Canada and low-value hardwood logs, veneer, and plywood from the Far East and South America. The benefits of foreign trade for the U.S. can be demonstrated by comparing the value-to-volume ratios between imports and exports. In 1979, the value-to-volume ratio for export sawnwood was 200, while for imports the ratio was only 100 (FAO, 1981). The export values of lumber are constantly higher than the import values by 48c per cubic foot (Bethel, 1975; Zivnuska, 1976). The United States is a major net exporter of raw forest products (logs and chips) and also a major exporter of the more highly processed forest products, such as paper and paperboard. It is a major net importer of intermediately processed forest products, such as sawnwood, pulp, and newsprint. In addition, the United States is a net aggregate importer of hardwood products, particularly hardwood panels, while it exports similar softwood products. In terms of wood imports value, Europe in 1979 was the world's largest importer market with 53% of the world's forest products imports. The European Common Market countries account for 37% of the world's imports, followed by Japan with 18% (FAO, 1981). Western Europe is also the U.S. South's best forest products export market, absorbing over 60% of total exports; the central American Caribbean region is the second most important forest product market for the U.S. South, consum- Opportunities for Exporting Wood Products from Alabama E.J. BIBLIS, Department of Forestry ing 18% of the total exports. The Common Market countries account for over 50 percent of southern pine lumber exports. Central and South America are the next most important market areas. According to Wisdom (1978), the Southern United States has the potential of becoming a major supplier of the world's wood demands, especially to Europe and the Central America-Caribbean region. According to Darr (1978), Europe holds the most potential for expanded exports of Southern pine lumber and plywood. In 1976, the South exported $472 million worth of woodpulp and $431 million of paper and paper products (Western Europe imported $90 million worth of paper and paper products while Mexico imported $29 million of paper products). In 1976, the South exported $70 million worth of softwood lumber (W. Germany, Spain, Italy); $11 million of hardwood lumber (Scandinavia, United Kingdom, and Italy); $14 million of hardwood logs (W. Germany, Italy); and $20 million in other wood products such as softwood logs, wood veneer, plywood, fiberboard, and pulpwood chips (Sedjo and Radcliffe, 1980). The Southern United States has the opportunity to expand significantly its share of the rapidly expanding European and Caribbean markets. Western Europe needs affordable substitutes for the fine exotic hardwoods (teak, rosewood, mahogany) it has become accustomed to for the last 25 years in manufacturing fine furniture and interior paneling. Their supplies of fine grain white oak are diminishing and European manufacturers welcome something different than their available species of beech and birch. Western Europeans have suddenly discovered the "beauty" of high quality (fine grain and clear) southern yellow pine for furniture and interior paneling. It appears the opportunity exists for Alabama manufacturers of forest products (other than pulp and paper products and treated poles for which a good export market already exists) to increase sales through exports to Western Europe in the following: (a) high quality southern yellow pine lumber for fine furniture, interior paneling, decking, and railing, (b) high quality sweetgum, yellow poplar, and red oak lumber and veneer, (c) panel products, particularly southern pine sanded plywood with B faces for interior paneling; also southern pine plywood for concrete forms and roof decking, and medium density fiberboard (MDF) as core for furniture and doors, and (d) furniture that combines woods and fabrics. Since cost of transportation constitutes a large percentage of the end price of wood product exports, the central AmericanCaribbean markets are of great potential importance to the South's exports. Presently, Venezuela has the largest market potential followed by Mexico in the future. Generally, Mexico's present demand for wood products is small. Venezuela with more expendable income and shortage of housing requires prefabricated wood houses, structural wood components for housing, structural plywood (particularly for concrete forms), treated lumber, and treated transmission and utility poles. Although Mexico has greater needs for housing, its expendable income is limited and it has high tariffs. Alabama manufacturers of the described products, with an interest to explore opportunities for export, can obtain information and assistance from the following organizations: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C.; U.S. Small Business Administration, Birmingham, Ala.; Alabama Office of International Development, Montgomery, Ala.; Southern U.S. Trade Association, New Orleans, La.; Southern Lumber Exporters Association, New Orleans, La.; and Alabama banks with an export department. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station 19 J, F~. W ,,V- Kudzu control with three soil active herbicides compared in Auburn trials: lett-Tordon 10K, 5 lb. active per acre. center-Banvel XP, 6 lb. active per acre, and Velpar 20G, 6 lb. active per acre. Soil Active Herbicides for Kudzu Control Report Of A Screening Study RICHARD MARTIN Department of Forestry JAMES H. MILLER, USFS George Anorews Lao THE S FANL)RD I REA I N'NFor excellent contriol. But high cost o1 the mnateIral Pr ecludes it, ue On marginal agriculturat land and tot lot extrx pur poses. Since a mnore economnical control method is needed. the Alabamna Agricultural lExpet mecrit Station is participating in a xci eening stud% to compat c x at box herbic idal treat merits Four Herbicides Tried Foiul her-hicidexN -t\,o at singole rates and txxo at txxo rates each- xxere applied in April 1980 to a site x here kuld/'u had been et coxinc more than 5 \cears. -1he sx treatmtenits Iall gix en in actix c ingredienits per acre) Ac re: 1.I ordon' 111K pellets. 5 lb. the xtandat d control1) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. lanxel' \ elpat \ elpar Spike' Spike' \I pellets, 6 lb. Although some grox h occuirred xx\hen Ba nxel xxaS used, result,,x ccalmuoxt ax good as xxoh I otdon. In fact, a xtatixtical compotixon xhoxx ed rio significanit diffetrence betxx cri I ordoi arid Hax el ri at mett Bans el ix of par ticitlat inter ext beCauxe regroxx "bxascx cried Until late sumii pi and it max Pr oxe to be an alte natixe to Tordon. W\ith the pelleti/ed formulatron used, hioxxcxer. Banx el mnax be nearlx ax expenxix e ax I ordon. \ elpar hax been inconxixtent 'incontrol ol kud/ri in other trialx hut rexultx, hetre indicate that hiigher ratex, Inax pr ox ide mnoi c conxixtent rexultx IPiui hx it hInch tolci alice to \ .21AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA 36849 Gale A. Buchanan, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 12/81 Penalty for Private use, $300 pat xi) it muax ptoxe \ alab~l br teatmnt of' kud/iu groxx ing tinder pine xtainds. Kti~z i~i t jo\x Ii it oi mm Si x \ \ i It R IlI atInet lb. ,icti\c pet acre i s (,R \1%1 xIR \1 \INi(, Oxeti dix Acight per acre Rance Mteaii Totilon I10K, 5 lb. . . . . 4311 910 06 BanocJ \P, 6 lb ......... \elpar _106, 6 lb . . . . 244-3.098 1,421 I \ elpati 20Gl, 4 lb . . . . ?.7(0-4,1 1 .453 Spike 201P,2 lb .......... 1,671-2.928 2.792 1,977) Spike 2011, 1 lb .. . . . . 1.299-3 I7 20G( granules. 4 lb. 20(1 granules. 2 lb. 201)~ pellets. 2 lb. 201I1 pellets, I lb. POSTAGE PAID U.S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE .XGR 101 BULK RATE Kudzu Growth Measured Ettleetix enexx of' the control tireatrments xwas determined bv comparing the ox en-di\ xx eight of aboe ground kudiau gi ox rh. I lie measuirements xetc taken inl October 198(1 on txx o I -xq.-mecter plots inl each ticotiment plot.