of agricultural research
-P:-
N
I I
, \i
IX :: e
Volume 24, No. 2 Summer 1977
Agricultural Experiment Station Auburn University
R. Dennis Rouse, Director Auburn, Alabama
Director's Comments
THE RECORD over the past 25 years
shows an annual rate of return of about
26% from investments in all agricultural
research in the state agricultural ex
periment stations but much higher on
some commodities. It should be of interest
to the reader of HIGHLIGHTS what kind
of investment is being made in Alabama on
the several major agricultural commodities
and what our analysis indicates are needed
for a reasonably adequate research effort
into these more important commodities.
This effort for 1976 given in scientist years
(one scientist devoting full time effort for
1 year) is listed below:
R. Dennis Rouse
RESEARCt I PROGRAM BY COMMONl IIES AND AiREAS
AU BURN UNIV% RSII AGRI( LULRAL EXPERIMENI STAI ION
1976
SY Ettort
Additional
Present Needs Total
Soybeans ......................... 6.9 3.4 10.3
Cotton ........... 10.0 5.3 15.3
C orn . . ... .... .. ... ... .. .... .. .. . 3.0 2.3 5.3
Forages and small grains .............. 11.9 6.9 18.8
Peanuts .......................... 4.9 3.0 7.9
Vegetables, fruits, and nuts ............ 12.3 8.3 20.6
Ornam entals ...................... 3.8 2.5 6.3
Forestry .......................... 11.4 8.2 19.6
Poultry ............................ 8.3 5.2 13.5
B eef ............................. 14 .5 6 .9 21.4
Sw ine ............................ 5.7 3.4 9 .1
D airy ............................ 6.2 2 3 8.5
Fish and wildlife .................... 8.9 5.7 14.6
O thers ........................... 5.8 4.0 9.8
T o i . ........................... 113.6 67.4 181.0
* The total present effort does not include scientist sears devoted to basic research and
other programs not directly associated with the above-listed commodities and areas.
A scientist year reflects all support and cost to maintain one scientist
one year. For example, 6.9 scientist years in soybeans include the total time
of all scientists conducting research on control of insects, diseases,
nematodes, and weeds: cultural practices, including variety testing, man
agement, growth regulators, nitrogen fixation, liming, fertilization,
seedbed preparation. and cultivation : and marketing and economics. It also
includes administrative effort at Auburn and the substations. Thus, the total
investment being made on soybean research in Alabama, everything that
is necessary to provide the knowledge base for this crop that is expected to
have a cash sale value in Alabama well in excess of $200 million in 1977,
is the cost of 6.9 scientists working on this crop. Our evaluation of research
needs for this crop support the need for an additional 3.4 scientist years,
or an increase of 50%. If this research alone results in just an increase
of one half bushel per acre on Alabama's estimated 1.6 million acres of
soybeans in 1977, the additional farm sales, at present prices, would exceed
the total annual state appropriations for the entire Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station.
A detailed analysis of our current effort and projected needs has recently
been given to the Auburn University Agricultural Advisory Council.
We have asked the members to review these and counsel with us on this
program. We always welcome opportunities to discuss needs and priorities
with any persons or groups. This is why Agriculture is so much more
successful in the United States than elsewhere. We endeavor to work as
partners with all producers and users of the information resulting from the
work of the Agricultural Experiment Station.
We believe we are using the resources available to this Station in the best
interest of the people of this state and region. We intend to keep it that way
but, to do so, we have to work as partners with all of you.
The Auburn University Agricultural
Advisory Council members pictured on the
cover are, left to right seated: Milton (Buzz)
Wendland, Autaugaville; H. M. (Fuzzy)
Perritt, Fuzzy's Feed Inc., Florence: John
Livingston, General Manager, Wayne Poultry
Company, Albertville; W. M. (Bill) Brown,
Atmore; Ed Allen, President, Ellis Im
plement Company Inc., Centre; A. W. (Buck)
Compton, Nanafalia; James Earl Mobley,
Shorterville: Jim Brady, Marion; and Emory
Cunningham, President, The Progressive
Farmer, Birmingham.
Ex officio members standing, from left:
David Ozment, Executive Vice President,
Alabama Poultry and Egg Association,
Cullman; J. D. Hays, President, Alabama
Farm Bureau Federation, Montgomery;
Dr. R. Dennis Rouse, Dean and Director,
School of Agriculture and Agricultural
Experiment Station, Auburn University;
Dr. J. Michael Sprott, Director, Alabama
Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn
University; Dr. E. V. Smith, Dean and
Director Emeritus, School of Agriculture and
Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn
University; Hilton Watson, Executive Vice
President, Alabama Forestry Association,
Montgomery; and E. H. (Ham) Wilson,
Executive Vice-President and Chief Executive
Officer, Alabama Cattlemen's Association,
Montgomery. Not pictured is ex officio
member Brice Moore, Manager, American
Dairy Association of Alabama, Montgomery.
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
SUMMER 1977 VOL. 24, NO. 2
A quarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment Station of
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNIS ROUSE ............... Director
STANLEY P. WILSON ..... Associate Director
CHAS. F. SIMMONS ...... Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY ........... Assistant Director
E. L. McGRAW ................. Editor
R. E. STEVENSON ........ Associate Editor
ROY R OBERSON ........... Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY
P. WILSON: J. D. HARPER, Associate Pro
lessor of Entomology; WALTER D. KELLEY,
Assistant Professor of Botany and Micro
biology; EARl L. WIGGINS, Professor of
Animal and Dairy Sciences, AND E. L.
McGRAW.
Information contained herein is available to
all without regard to race, color, or national
origin.
Hereford breeding, with a few Angus Hereford crossbreds. Steer
calves were either purchased locally or produced on the Substation.
All heifers were from the Substation herd and all were open.
Twelve steers and 12 heifers were fed annually for about 200 days.
The groups were fed separately. Rations were designed to support
gains of about 2 lb. daily. Cattle were slaughtered at an average age of
15-16 months. The test began about November 15 and ended around
June 1.
Steer vs. Heifer
PERFORMANCE
During Growing-Finishing
R. R. HARRIS, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
J. K. BOSECK and W. B. WEBSTER, Tennessee Valley Sub.
C ATTLE FEEDERS generally agree that heifers and steers perform
differently in growing-finishing programs. There also is agreement
that feeder heifers should be cheaper to compensate for feedlot
performance differences. However, there is little agreement on
what the relative price spread should be between feeder steers and
heifers.
Results of a recent Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station test provide data that can serve as guidelines in determining
relative value of heifers and steers. According to these findings,
heifers selling for $3 to $5 per cwt. less than steers might be more
profitable than steers for feedlot operators.
Steers, Heifers Compared
The 1973-75 study at the Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle
Mina, compared feedlot efficiency of steer and heifer calves of similar
weights and breeding. Both sex groups were of predominately
Good quality corn silage was full fed, along with 1.5 lb. of
cottonseed meal per head daily and a limited amount of whole, high
moisture (HM) shelled corn. Corn feeding was started at a rate of
0.5% of body weight and progressively increased within a feeding
season to a maximum of 2.0% of body weight. The increases in
amount of corn fed were done in steps, by adding 0.5% of body weight
at approximately 56-day intervals. The corn was harvested at about
28% moisture and was fed at about 26% moisture. The freshly
harvested corn was treated with an organic acid preservative and
stored in an oxygen controlled metal silo.
Steers Gained Faster, More Efficiently
Steers gained about 5% faster than heifers fed similarly (1.98 vs.
1.89 average daily gain). Although the steers ate more total feed, they
were slightly more efficient in feed conversion, as indicated by data in
the table.
Heifers were somewhat fatter at slaughter, having slightly more
backfat than steers (0.53 vs. 0.44 in.), less desirable yield grade (3.3
vs. 3.1), and higher marbling scores (6.1 vs. 5.2). Marbling was
probably responsible for a larger proportion of heifer carcasses grading
Choice (94% vs. 75% for steers).
The heifers had a higher dressing percentage than steers (61.3% vs.
59.6%). This difference, as well as other carcass differences, showed
up in comparative values of the steers and heifers since carcasses were
sold on weight and grade basis with no price differential because of
sex.
Findings of the Tennessee Valley Substation comparison establish
that non-pregnant beef heifers perform similarly to steers on high-
silage, growing-finishing rations. When fed for the same length of
time, higher proportions of heifer carcasses graded Choice. Heifers
were found to generally finish at lighter weights than steers.
Feeder heifers often sell for $3 to $5 less per cwt. than steers of
comparable weight and quality. The Auburn results indicate that
when this price differential exists, feeding of heifers would be more
profitable than feeding of steers. Success of heifer feeding requires
feeding young non-pregnant heifers to gain at least 1.75 lb. daily and
selling finished animals on the basis of carcass weight and grade.
COMPARATIVE GAIN AND FEED CONSUMPTION OF STEERS AN) HEIFERS,
TENNESSEE V AiEY SUBSTATION, 1973 75
Result. by sex
Performance measure
Steers Heiers
Number of feeders ........................ 36 36
Initial weight, lb .. ...... . ..... .... . 550 508
Final weight, lb ............ ..... .. ..... 947 886
Average daily gain, lb .. ................... 1.98 1.89
Feed per head
Corn silage, lb ................... ....... 5,416 5,150
HM corn, lb..................... ........ 1,076 1,071
Cottonseed meal (41%), lb ............ ...... 260 260
Feed per cwt. gain
Silage, lb ..................... ......... 1,517 1,522
Corn, lb .. ........ ......... ..... . 296 312
Cottonseed meal, lb ............ ......... . 73 77
Arginine Maturity Index
(AMI) Method For Determining
Peanut Harvest Dates
JOHN D. WEETE and TIM McCARDLE
Department of Botany and Microbiology
P 1 \tI U l Iepreset oiiW f) the I ajor sources
of agricultural income in Alabama. ranking
second among crops and fifth among all
commodities in 1975.
In spite of improvement in cultural prac
tices, a problem that persists from year to year
is selecting a harvest date that will result in
the greatest yield. Harvest date selection is a
problem for peanuts because it is an in
determinant plant, which means that varying
proportions of immature peanuts are obtained
at any particular digging date. Farmers seek to
harvest when most of the peanuts are mature.
Until recently, only subjective methods for
determining peanut maturity and harvest
dates were practiced and included such factors
as size and color of testa, degree of darkening
of the inside of the pod, certain seed charac-
teristics. and number of days from planting.
Dr. Clyde T. Young, at the University of
Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station,
discovered a relation between the arginine
maturity index (AMI) and peanut maturity,
and subsequently developed an automated
method for determining peanut harvest dates
based on this relationship. AMI is the ratio of
arginine and dry matter contents of 30 g. of
seed. Arginine is an amino acid and one of the
building blocks of protein. If AMI values of
peanuts from representative plants in a field
are taken at weekly intervals beginning 5 6
weeks prior to a probable harvest date and
plotted, a graph such as that in the figure is
obtained. AMI values decrease to a minimum,
which represents a stage when a majority of
peanuts are mature and the field is ready to
harvest. Once an AMI curve is established,
peanut harvest dates can be accurately
estimated by determining the AMI values of
two samples taken approximately 2 and
3 weeks prior to the probable harvest date.
The AMI values of these samples are located
on the curve and the harvest date for the field
from which these samples were taken is
4
estimated by determining the time required for
the values of the samples to reach a minimum.
In 197(,, a study was initiated at the
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station to test the applicability of the AMI
method in Alabama and begin establishing
data (AM1I curve) on which peanut harvest
date estimations can be based. There were
two primary objectives of the study: (1)
develop an AMI curve for Alabama based on
data from experimental plots at the Wiregrass
Substation and (2) to increase the amount of
data on which to base the AMI curve from
samples taken by growers ("participating
growers") contacted prior to harvest. In ad-
dition, some farmers brought samples to the
laboratory for analysis and harvested at least
some of their crop according to AMI analysis.
This report presents results of the first ob-
jective and briefly summarizes results of ob-
jective two and preliminary results of 
peanuts
harvested according to the AMI.
An AMI laboratory was established at the
Wiregrass Substation in Headland. Beginning
April 7, 1976, peanuts of the florunner
variety were planted at 1 week intervals on
different plots for 5 weeks at the Wiregrass
Substation. Beginning August 3, 1976, 2-3
samples were taken for analysis from each plot
at 2 7 day intervals. Sampling continued
through September 29, 1976. The yield and
quality of peanuts from these plots were con
sidered very good; the best yields from each
plot averaged 3,651 lb. per acre and the 
best
grades averaged 75.
AMI values were determined for all samples
and the values plotted according to weeks from
harvest using the lowest AMI values to
represent plants with the greatest number of
mature peanuts (the figure). The AMI curve
for Alabama is very similar to that developed
for peanuts grown in Georgia. AMI values
declined very rapidly, each reaching a low
point in the same general range. AMI values
tor peanuts trom Alabama seem to decline
more rapidly than those from Georgia, but the
AMI curve for Alabama must be considered
tentative until more baseline data are ac-
cumulated over the next 2-3 years.
Prior to harvest, peanut farmers were con-
tacted through count chairmen of the
Alabama Cooperative Extension Service and
requested to collect samples from some of their
fields. They began taking samples 4-5 weeks
prior to probable harvest dates and stored
them in a freezer for analysis at a later date. Of
approximately 100 growers contacted, only
23 provided samples. Although the data were
variable, an AMI curve from these samples
approximated the curve (the figure) developed
from samples taken at the Wiregrass
Substation.
In addition, approximately 190 farmers
brought peanut samples to the AMI
laboratory for analysis in late August and Sep
tember. It was made clear that only tentative
estimates of harvest dates could be made, since
no previous data for Alabama were available.
For this reason, it was recommended that the
farmer harvest his crop according to the AMI
analysis only at his own discretion. However,
based on responses to questionnaires, 33 of
the growers harvested approximately 1,700
acres of peanuts according to the AMI
analysis. Fields that were harvested ac
cordingly yielded approximately 200 lb. per
acre more than fields (about 1,900 acres) of
these same growers not harvested according to
the AMI determination. Although many
areas were severely affected by drought and
the data presented above are based on
relatively few acres, it appears that the AMI
method of determining peanut harvest dates
has a great potential for increasing yields
for Alabama peanut farmers.
2O
200. - AMI CURVE -ALABAMA-1976
0- AMI CURVE-GEORGIA- 1976
,50
00
5C-
28 21 14 7 0 7
DAYS TO HARVEST
AMI curves for Alabama (1976) and
Georgia (provided by Dr. Clyde T. Young).
Soil Acidity
Reduces
Effectiveness
of Atrazine
A. E. HILTBOLD and G. A. BUCHANAN
Department of Agronomy and Soils
Soil, \Clo ITY reduces the persistence of
atrazine applied for weed control in corn.
Therefore, liming acid soils improves both
herbicidal weed control and nutritional condi-
tions for crops.
Activity of atrazine depends on its absorp-
tion through roots and shoots of seedling
weeds. In acid soil, atrazine reacts with clay
and soil organic matter in a way that reduces
its herbicidal activity.
Effect of soil acidity on atrazine persistence
was determined in corn plots at three Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Station
locations during 1972 and 1973. Atrazine
was applied at 1, 2, and 3 lb. active ingredient
per acre to plots ranging in acidity from pH 5
to pH 7. Soil types were Decatur silt loam at
28 Decatur sil
26-
24
22
-
31b.
20
18 21b.
16
14
12 - b.
10
8
6
2
5.0 5.5 6.0 65 7.0
Soil pH
the Tennessee Valley Substation, Hartsells
fine sandy loam at the Sand Mountain Substa
tion, and McLaurin sandy loam at the Lower
Coastal Plain Substation.
At intervals during each season, atrazine
remaining in the soil was determined. Persis-
tence was measured as the time from ap-
plication to the date when atrazine activity
was barely sufficient to reduce the growth of
oats (a sensitive species) to 50% of that where
no atrazine had been applied. Persistence was
then related to soil pH in each plot.
Persistence of atrazine was found to increase
with each increase in pH in all three soils. Ef
fects were essentially the same in both years.
The graphs present the 1972 73 average for
each soil.
8 28
. Hartsells fsl
26 26
24- 24
2 22
20- 20
18 18
16 - 16
4 31b 1414 
12 - 21b 12
8 8
6 -b 6
4 4
2 2
0 I I I 0
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 70
Soil pH
McLaurin sl
- 3 b.
- 21
- lb
I I I 1
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 70
Soil pH
Persistence of atrazine (three rates) as affected by soil pH is shown for three soils.
5
Increasing the pH of Decatur silt loam from
5.5 to 6.5 increased the period of atrazine ac
tivity by 4 weeks. In the Hartsells soil, this pH
increase extended atrazine's persistence by
nearly 2 weeks, while in the McLaurin soil
there was only about a 1 week increase in
length of persistence of the herbicide.
The effects of pH on persistence are a factor
in determining how much atrazine is required
for effective weed control. In Decatur silt
loam, for example, 3 lb. per acre was required
to provide the same period of atrazine activity
at pH 5.5 that could be obtained with only 2
lb. at pH 6.2. Thus, herbicide economy is an
obvious advantage of liming acid soils for corn
production.
Also revealed in the Auburn studies was
that soil conditions other than pH affect
atrazine persistence. For example, atrazine ac
tivity lasted three times longer in Decatur silt
loam than in McLaurin sandy loam at the
same soil pH. Persistence of atrazine observed
in these soils is consistent with that found in
other Alabama soils.
As a general rule, the activity of atrazine is
reduced by one-half with each 20 days after
application. Some soils, such as the
McLaurin, take only 10 days to inactivate
atrazine by half, while 30 days may be
required in soils like the Decatur. Alkaline
clay soils of the Black Belt show the greatest
persistence of atrazine among Alabama soils.
Research is continuing to explain why some
soils retan in e and others quickly lose it.
While atrazine may persist too long in some
regions of the United States, this is seldom a
problem in the Southeast. To the contrary, in-
creasing persistence would be an advantage in
some soils by maintaining herbicidal activity
until crops grow enough to suppress weeds.
Liming acid soils should improve corn produc
tion through both improved fertility con-
ditions and better weed control from atrazine.
Pine Bark Beetles
May Attract Their
Own Enemies
L. L. HYCHE and J. J. KEEBLE, Department of Zoology Entomology
INSPICIION of almos.t any dying, freshly
killed, or newly felled pine tree reveals the ac
tivity of many species of insects bark beetles,
wood borers, predators, parasites, and
scavengers. For many of these, particularly
the bark beetles, such pines provide highly
desirable food and development sites. Tree
condition mainly attracts these species, but ac
cording to results of research at the Auburn
University Agricultural Experiment Station
tree condition has little attraction for certain
bark beetle predators. The presence of these
insects is directly related to the presence and
activity of the bark beetles themselves.
Research Conducted
Investigations were conducted on the oc
currence of two pine bark beetle predators on
bark beetle-infested material and similar
material that was free of beetle attack. The
predators were Medetera bistriata (Figure 1),
one of the long-legged flies, and Thanasimus
dubius (Figure 2), a checkered beetle. Each
species is commonly found in association with
southern pine beetle and Ips engraver beetle
infestations.
Procedures
In studies with the fly M. bistriata, the Ips
engraver I grandicollis was the host insect.
Ips-infested and uninfested, beetle-susceptible
pine bolts were caged in a pine stand so that
flies had equal access to all cages. Each cage
was equipped with a sticky-type trap to collect
a sample of the fly population alighting there.
Traps were collected and replaced daily for the
duration ot one Ips generation, and the num
ber of flies captured was recorded.
The T dubius studies were conducted in an
active southern pine beetle infestation. In this
case, sticky traps were placed around the boles
of newly attacked trees and adjacent unin
fested trees. Traps were collected and replaced
at weekly intervals for one complete southern
pine beetle generation.
Research Results
Results (Figure 3) reveal that the adults of
each predator species clearly preferred the
bark beetle-infested pine material. Almost
94% of the total M. bistriata collection oc
curred in traps on cages containing Ips
infested pine. Collection of T dubius was 88%
at trees under attack by southern pine beetle
and 12% at adjacent uninfested trees. Adults
of both of these species are very active, which
may account for the appearance of specimens
in traps at uninfested material.
Importance of Predator Attraction
The decided attraction of these two
predators to the bark beetle-infested material
is significant. To have any real potential as an
effective regulating agent in an insect
population, a predator (or parasite) must be
able to locate its prey or host. In the case of T
dubius and M. bistriala, attraction to beetle
infested pine ensures location of their hosts.
Thus, the attacking bark beetles are essen
tially responsible for attracting some of their
natural enemies.
Percent of
collection ction 
Beetle 
infested
100- 
9 
Uninfested
88%
75
50
25
12%
6.5%
0 
D
M. bistriota T. dubius
FIG. 1. Top, Long-legged fly adult (
FIG. 2. Center, Checkered beetle adult
FIG. 3. Bottom, Abundance of
and .: . adults at Ips-infested and
uninfested pine.
4'
MAN HAS long been aware of the un-
pleasant flavors, odors, and other undesirable
changes in foods caused by molds. Specific
molds or fungi can also produce poisonous
chemical substances in food. These chemicals
are mycotoxins, and the toxicity syndromes
that they cause in animals are mycotoxicoses.
Contamination of a food supply by toxin-
producing fungi can result in a direct hazard
to human health when foods containing
mycotoxins are eaten by man. When the iden-
tity of the fungi involved is known, it is easier
to assess the extent of the mycotoxin hazard to
man. Results reported here are part of a
screening program in which fungi were
isolated from a variety of human foods, then
identified and tested for toxicity to brine
shrimp and chicken embryos by standard
procedures for evaluating toxin formation by
molds.
Forty-five fungi were isolated from visibly
molded foods purchased or obtained with the
cooperation of personnel in a local supermar-
ket and from home refrigerators during 1973-
74. Isolation was by direct plating on YE agar
(2% dextrose, 0.7% yeast extract (Difco),
0.5% KH
2 
PO4, and 2% agar), from which
the fungi were monocultured at room tem-
perature (25 to 30 C) on either Czapek-Dox or
potato-dextrose agar for identification. The
fungi were then grown in 1-liter Erlenmeyer
flasks on nutrient-amended shredded wheat
which had been autoclaved 15 minutes at 121
C twice in 24 hours. The cultures were in-
cubated 14 to 21 days at 25 C. Moldy sub-
strates were extracted with chloroform-
ethanol (80:20), filtered, and evaporated un-
der an airstream at room temperature. Ex-
tracts for the brine shrimp bioassay were taken
up in 95% ethanol, while extracts from
chicken embryos were suspended in corn oil.
Controls of uninoculated nutrient-amended
shredded wheat extracts were included in all
bioassays.
Initial screening was with brine shrimp, a
sensitive test organism for mycotoxins. Since
some fungi elaborate naturally-occurring fatty
acids that are toxic to brine shrimp, toxicity
must be confirmed with at least one additional
test organism, which in this research was
chicken embryos. Certain isolates not toxic to
brine shrimp were also tested.
Results of the brine shrimp primary bioas-
says revealed that nearly 44% of all isolates
were toxic to brine shrimp. Nineteen of the
toxic isolates plus three that were nontoxic to
brine shrimp were subsequently bioassayed
with chicken embryos. Fourteen of these 22
isolates (64%) were highly toxic to chicken
embryos, causing 60 to 100% mortality, see
table. These were: Aspergillus niger (#769),
Cladosporium sphaerospermum (#533),
ToxICITY OF FUNGAL EXTRACTS TO BRINE SHRIMP AND CHICKEN EMBRYOS
. cBChicken
AUA culture Fungus Food source Brine shrip embryos deaths/
number mortality total eggs
Check Uninoculated medium .......... 0 1/20
647 Aspergillus niger .............. onion 2 10/20
769 A. niger...................bread 2 8/10
533 Cladospoium sphaerospermum .... honey bun 0 14/20
553 Fusarium lateritium ............ orange 2 5/10
597 F oxysporum ................. carrot 1 10/10
625 F solani .................. . cabbage 0 10/10
665 Fusarium sp .................. squash 2 5/10
664 Mucorfragilis ............... squash 1 10/20
765 Penicillium corylophilum ........ bread 2 10/10
535 P cyclopium ................ corn meal 2 10/10
630 P herquei ................. . corn meal 1 10/10
650 P. lanosum...................onion 2 6/10
748 P. nigricans ................ peach 2 10/10
551 P. steckii .................. . chocolate syrup 2 13/20
707 Penicillium sp............... . diet jelly 2 8/10
644 Rhizopus nigricans ............. tomato 1 5/10
648 R. nigricans .................. onion 2 4/10
598 R. nigricans.................peach 2 3/10
620 R. nigricans..................sweet potato 0 10/10
675 R. nigricans ................ . applesauce 2 7/10
606 R. nigricans ................. corn meal 2 4/10
618 R. nigricans ................ . strawberry 2 10/10
1 2=60 to 100% mortality; 1=20 to 59%; 0=0 to 19%.
Fusarium oxysporum (#597), F. solani
(#625), Penicillium corylophilum (#765), P.
cyclopium (#535), P. herquei (#603), P.
lanosum (#560), P. nigricans (#748), P.
steckii (#511), Penicillium sp. (#707),
Rhizopus nigricans (#620), R. nigricans
(#675), and R. nigricans (#618). These 14
highly toxigenic isolates represented 31% of
all fungi obtained from foods.
Five other isolates, A. niger (#647), F
lateritium (#553), Fusarium sp. (#665),
Mucor fragilis (#664), and R. nigricans
(#644) exhibited low to moderate toxicity.
Thus, approximately 42% of the fungi initially
isolated from foods were at least moderately
toxic to brine shrimp and chicken embryos.
Extracts from approximately one-third of
the fungi were moderately to highly toxic to
brine shrimp and chicken embryos. In Japan,
30% of 247 fungal isolates from foods were
toxic to mice; in southern Africa, 36% of 531
fungal isolates from foods in the diets of rural
Bantu were toxic to ducklings. In situations of
extreme hunger and concern for quantity
rather than quality, the hazard of mycotoxins
is compounded by the fact that the under-
nourished generally are more susceptible to
these toxicants than individuals with more
adequate diets.
Penicillium was the most frequently
isolated group of fungi in the study, with 41%
of 17 isolates being toxigenic to brine shrimp
and chicken embryos. The apparent
predominance of Penicillium species may
reflect the influence of refrigeration;
Penicillium appears to be very competitive at
low temperature storage of high moisture
foods.
This investigation did not determine
whether the foodstuffs actually contained
known mycotoxins or were toxic per se. It
only determined that 42% of the moldy food-
stuffs investigated were invaded by strains of
fungi capable of elaborating toxic substances.
Additional work is required to determine the
identity of the toxic compounds and the extent
to which the toxigenic fungi elaborate their
mycotoxins on the foods from which they
were originally isolated.
Molds and
in Foods
N. D. DAVIS, G. MORGAN-JONES, and U. L. DIENER
Department of Botany and Microbiology
Many Factors Affect Incidence of
Body-checked and Misshapen Eggs
DAVID A. ROLAND, SR., Department of Poultry Science
M ANY QUESTIONS about causes of body checked and misshapen
eggs are answered by findings of Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station research. Such factors as too little cage space
per hen, aging hens, and time of oviposition were found to cause
eggs to have a ridge around the middle (banded eggs) or otherwise
be misshaped.
In the Auburn tests, eggs were collected from various aged hens
and scored for degree of misshapenness, using these classifications:
* Slightly ridged-small ridges or bands around the middle of the
egg.
* Medium ridged-pronounced bands or ridges around the middle
of the egg.
* Body checked pronounced ridges around the middle of the egg
and a visible body check.
* Flat sided--eggs with a flat side.
Approximately 20% of the eggs were misshaped or had body
checks, Table 1. Questions about causes were answered as follows:
How did hen age and time of oviposition affect incidence?
The incidence of body-checked eggs 
increased with age. Conversely,
the incidence of eggs with ridges around the middle appeared to
decrease as the hen aged. The greatest percentage of misshapen eggs
were laid between 6 a.m. and 10 a.m. Few were laid after 10 a.m.,
Table 2.
How did cage density affect misshapen and body-checked
eggs? Eggs were collected and scored from cages that had 4 birds, 3
birds, or 2 birds per cage. Body-checked and misshapen eggs were
found to be directly related to number of birds per cage. Reducing
cage density decreased the percentage of misshapen and body-checked
eggs, Table 3.
In another experiment, birds were first housed 1 and 2 birds per
cage, then moved to 3 birds per cage, and finally moved back to 1 and
2 per cage. Eggs were collected and scored each time. Again the
incidence of body-checked or misshapen eggs was related directly to
the number of birds per cage. The incidence was increased or
decreased by changing bird density.
How did time of day affect incidence of misshapen and body-
checked eggs? The vast majority of body checked and misshapen
eggs were laid between 6 and 8 a.m. This was thought to be related to
time of oviposition. Eggs laid at 8 a.m. were ovulated about 8 a.m. the
previous day. It takes about 4 hours for eggs to reach the uterus,
which would be about 12 noon, and during the next 4 hours little
shell calcification could occur. Then from 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. just
enough shell is put on to make the egg fragile. When the lights go off
at 8 p.m., the hens settle down in space inadequate for their size, thus
body pressure causes the thin egg shell to break.
Why was the ridge or body check always around the middle
of the egg? This is the widest part of the egg and it is believed that
the greatest amount of pressure placed on the eggs in the uterus is
exerted at this shell location. This would cause the crack to occur
around the middle of the egg.
Why do body checks increase as hens age even though
normal mortality decreases number of hens per cage? The egg of
a young hen is small and she has enough calcium to completely seal
the broken area, leaving only a slight ridge. The older hen has a larger
egg and does not have enough calcium to seal the egg, thus leaving a
body check. Approximately 5% of the eggs in experiments 1 3 were
lost because of body checks.
What can be done to avoid the problem? Most body checks and
misshapen eggs could be prevented by housing 1 bird per cage, but
this is not economically feasible. However, results of the Auburn
research suggest steps that will minimize the incidence of body
checks:
* Do not increase cage density above recommended level. As layers
die due to normal mortality, redistribute the birds to minimize cage
density.
* Eliminate all conditions that will increase body movement, such
as excess noise, sudden movements by personnel, or strangers, wild
birds, or animals in the cage house. Undue excitement of the bird
increases body or cage pressure on the oviduct causing body-checked
eggs.
* The diets should be properly formulated. Inadequate dietary
levels of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, or other nutrients that can
affect shell calcification could reduce the hens' ability to satisfactorily
repair body checked eggs.
TAll t 1. EXTENT AND TYPE OF Ml IS IAPEN EG(;S As IAECTi l13Y
Type of misshapen egg, pct.
Exp. Hen age, Total
number months Slight Medium Body Flat Total
ridged ridged checked sided mis
shapen
1 8 16.9 1.3 0.9 0.4 19.4
2 11 15.6 .5 5.4 .2 21.7
3 14 9.5 .3 8.5 .4 18.6
TABE 2. MISSHAPFN EGG INCIDENCE As AFFEC E1)isY AGE OF HEN
AND TIME OF OvII'OSITION
Misshapen eggs, by age of hens
Oviposition time 8 months 11 months 14 months
(Exp. 1) (Exp. 2) (Exp. 3)
Pct. Pct. PCt.
6 p.m. 6a.m ......... 12.2 ( 3.8) 29.1 ( 4.7) 28.1 0)
6a.m. 8a.m.. ...... 57.7(12.6) 28.7(17.4) 49.7(15.6)
8 a.m.-10 a.m.. .. .... . 26.1 (25.8) 30.2(29.1) 19.9 (26.0)
10 a.m. 12 noon ......... 9.5(27.8) 12.0 (26.5) 8.2(24.1)
12noon- 2p.m............ 7.1 (16.3) 17.1 (12.0) 
5.8(13.0)
2p.m. 4p.m. . ....... 7.9( 8.8) 15.5 
( 9.5) 9.2 (10.3)
4p.m. 6 p.m .......... 9.5 ( 4.9) 8.0 ( 0.8) 5.7( 5.0)
1 Values in parenthesis represent percentage of total eggs laid during
specified period.
TAB 3. EFFECI O() CA;GE DENI IO (N INCIIlENt )Fi Mlissi iPi N
EGGs (ExH RIMI NT 4)
Percentage misshapen , by a e density
Oiposition 
4 hens/cage 
3 hens/cage 
2 herns/age
time
C R Total C R Total C R Total
6:(00 a.m.
7:30a.m... 33.8 21.8 55.6 14.9 10.6 25.5 8.3 16.7 25.0
7:30 a.m.
10:00 a.m.. 18.0 8.5 26.5 7.0 9.3 16.3 0 2.0 2.0
6:00 am.
10:00 am ... 21.7 11.5 33.2 9.4 9.9 19.3 2.7 6.9 9.6
I Misshapen eggs identified as C (checked) and R (ridged). Ridged
includes slightly ridged, medium ridged, and flat sided.
HANDLE LARGE ROUND BALE
ELMO RENOLL, Department of Agricultural Enginleering
ALABANI., farmers are excitedrabout the news large round hay
balethtshw great prospects frhelping reduce farm labor and
feeding cost. This well placed enthusiasm should be cou~pled wsith
good farm safety practices when handling these 1 000( to 1 , 500
lb). monsters. These large bales and the machines that produce
them have already caused ncimerous serious injuries and several
deaths.
Any farm machine that gathers up forage and compresses it is
dangerous and should be treated swith caution. Farmers have operated
the conventional rectangular baler for years and are generally familiar
with it and the potential hazards. But the large round bale machines
are of less familiar design and present different hazards. For example.
the rear parts of these balers are hydraulically opened and closed by
the operator and can strike a bystander. Rectangular bales usually stay
in position on the grocind where they drop. This is not always true of
large rocind bales. They are ejected to the ground some distance to the
rear cof the machine and sometimes also roll. When baling on sloping
grocind remember to discharge the bales so they will not roll down the
hill. Farmers have reported bales rolling down hills, destroying
fences, and going onto highways, causing automobile accidents.
Handling and transporting these bales can also be hazardous.
Machines and systems to handle one bale or several per trip are
available and all should be operated with care. One reasonably safe
way to lift and transport single bales is with a tractor equipped with a
FIG. 1. It bales are transported with a tractor
front-end loader keep the load low and speed
slow. FIG. 2. Front-end bale is too high making
the tractor unstable. Note the protective
frame for the tractor operator. Transporting
with a rear tractor loader is one suggested
way to handle round bales. FIG. 3. Hauling
several bales on a trailing transporter behind
a suitable size tractor is one reasonably safe
way to transport round bales.
rear mounted fork or loader. Extra ballast on the tractor front end syill
usually be needed to counteract the bale sweight.
Many farmers cise a front-mounted loader on a tractor to handle
these large bales even though it can be very dangerous. If the front-
mouinted loader is cised, add plenty of weight to the rear of the tractor.
This will improve stability and traction. If possible, use a tractor with
wide front wheel spacing. Front loaded bales interfere with operator
vision. This presents two problems. If the bale is raised high enough
to see under it. the tractor tends to become unstable and is easily
turned over on sloping or rough land or dciring a quick tractor turn. if
the operator stands to see over the bale, it is difficult to reach the
tractor controls.
For front bale hauling use a tractor equipped with an operator
protective frame or safety cab to protect the operator from bales that
might accidentally fall from the loader arms. Pay extra attention to
front tire condition and inflation. These big bales place additional
weight on the front tires which can cacise tire failure and may result in
an accident.
If you do use a front-end loader, remember to keep the bale low and
the tractor speed slow.
Many large farm operators handle bales with a self-loading wagon
or hauiler Pcilled behind the tractor. Slow transport speeds are also
important here. Remember to use a tractor with enough weight and
braking power to safely handle the heavy load.
, .'-
Spray Method of Application of
Fungicides to Control
Peanut White Mold
P. A. BACKMAN, R. RODRIGUEZ-KABANA and J. M. HAMMOND
Department of Botany and Microbiology "
FIG. 1. Ground application of Vitavax
using boom sprayer equipped with drop
nozzles.
FIG. 2. Two hollow-cone spray nozzles
directed to cover a 6-8" band along the
ground and crown of the plant.
A MAJOR PROBLEM in controlling peanut
white mold (Sclerotium rolfsii) is the in-
ability to get the fungicide to the soil surface
after the plant is established. Previously, the
only method available to peanut farmers was
to apply granules over the top of the peanut
plant. The dense granule would then fall
through the leaves to the soil surface, where
the white mold was active. Fungicide sprays
could not be used because when applied over
the top of the plant, fungicide adhered mostly
to the leaves, which acted as an umbrella over
the soil.
Research Procedures
In 1975, researchers from Auburn Univer-
sity's Agricultural Experiment Station at-
tached flexible drops to a standard ground
sprayer boom, with one drop per row (figures
1 and 2). The nozzles on the drop were in the
foliage and beneath the majority of the leaves,
and were therefore able to apply the fungicide
to the soil surface. The spray nozzles used
were hollow cone types with two per drop.
The sprayer operated at 60 lb. of pressure per
square inch and 20 or more gal. per acre. Only
the pegging zone (4-6 in. on each side of the
stem) was treated.
Research Results
Results, see table, reflect the standard
Terraclor 10G granule in comparison with
10
Ax
.. * e. . *
?.* , * ? *;'. , . .* 
.
. ." .. . . . * ' . .. ?n ". .." .
? . . . .- .-, .* . ...'.. '* *: . ....
? "t "~~~~ .o * ,',.'
"r ? 04
"," ', 
l
"o . .. ,j o . ? ,40
Terraclor 2EC liquid and Vitavax 3F liquid ap-
plications. The dollar value per acre figure in-
dicates that all fungicides were economical.
These data further indicate that the drop noz-
zle system effectively delivers fungicides for
white mold control in peanuts.
Satisfactory Compounds
Based on these and other data developed by
Auburn University, Vitavax 3F is presently
recommended at a rate of 3 pt. per acre
(slightly higher than the rate reported in the
table). This recommendation is for use in Ala-
bama only. The Terraclor 10G formulation
can also be used at a rate of 100 lb. per acre on
a 12-18 in. band.
These products should be applied only to
fields with a history of white mold, before
white mold breaks out, and preferably be-
tween 45 and 70 days after planting. As a rule
of thumb, 3-4 dead sites per 100 ft. of peanut
row last year indicate that a treatment should
be applied this season. Product cost varies
greatly between recommended treatments;
from a high of $43 per acre for the terraclor-
nematicide combination treatment to a low
of $13.50 per acre for the Vitavax 3F
treatment. Terraclor used alone costs about
$20 per acre. The addition of Vitavax 3F
to the recommended list allows the peanut
farmer to choose between two fungicides
recommended for peanut white mold control,
based on cost and available equipment.
CONTROL OF WHITE MOLD IN PEANUTS WITH COMMERCIAL FUNGICIDES
Treatment Rate Dead plants Yields (lb/acre) $ value/ton $ value/acre
1975 1976 mean 1975 1976 mean 1975 1976 mean 1975 1976 mean
Control ........ - 5.1 5.5 5.3 3,920 3,412 3,666 411 342 376 808 583 695
TerraclorlOG.. 100 lb. 3.0 4.0 3.5 4,429 3,606 4,017 412 347 380 912 625 769
Terraclor2EC
1  
5gal. 1.4 4.3 2.8 4,598 3,557 4,077 425 347 386 991 617 804
Vitavax3F
1 
... 2.5 pt. 2.5 4.7 3.6 4,138 3,799 3,968 420 373 396 869 708 788
1 Delivered with the drop nozzle technique.
-, " j
1925 Pecan Test Planting Still Yielding Information
C. L. ISBELL, Department of Horticulture (Retired)
PECAN TREES planted 52 years ago in an
experiment at Albertville are still yielding use
ful information. The experiment was dis
continued 2 years after the planting of 123
trees was made on the campus of the Second
ary Agricultural School, now Albertville
High School, due to lack of funds for super
vision. But observations and inquiries by the
author since that time indicate that pecan
trees are suited to the area. The trees have
yielded well, produced excellent shade, and
have not been seriously damaged by diseases.
SR. W. Taylor, now of Guntersville. planted the
trees.
roots from going deep. As a result, the
pecan tree blew down in 1976.
Most of the trees planted in the Albertville
test orchard were donated by some 16 nur-
series. They were shipped to Auburn, heeled
in, and later taken up, repacked, and shipped
by rail to Albertville for planting during the
week ending March 7, 1925.'Soil of the plant-
ing site is a sandy loam underlain with sand
stone, usually 21/2-3 2 ft. below the surface.
Replanting in 1926 was necessary to replace
55 trees that died because of poor condition at
planting and dry weather.
Much of the campus had been taken for
playgrounds, walks, roads, and building sites
when 1976 observations were made. How-
ever, 20 of the original trees, or replants made
in 192( remained.
Observations in 1976
A block of tour Stuart and four Success trees
of the original plantings, located in the
southeast corner of the campus (left photo
above), was observed in May 
and September,
1976. Although these trees are spaced 60 ft.
apart, limbs are meeting. Trunk diameter is
about 3 ft. A good crop of nuts was made in
1976, and fruit scars on twigs indicate that
yields were good 
in past years.
One of these Stuart trees was uprooted by
sind after the May 15 observation. Its roots
had not gone deep because of the sandstone, as
shown in the photograph at left.
Size and productiveness of the other re-
maining trees vary according to space, soil fer
tility, and moisture. One of the Success trees
(right photo above) has a 4-ft. trunk diameter
and a limb spread of 78 ft. It was carrying an
estimated crop of 100 lb. or more of nuts on
September 24, 1976. A large Schley also had a
good crop of nuts, and trees of 
Alley, Pabst,
and Deman were carrying good crops of
almost disease-free nuts when observed.
Citizens living near the campus report that the
trees have fruited well through the years.
Lessons from the Planting
Trees with relatively large diameters at
planting survived best. Results further show
the importance of setting trees in soil with
enough depth, fertility, and moisture for good
growth.
Those planted in moist fertile soil became
crowded by the time they were 50 years old.
Therefore, wider spacing is suggested for
maximum nut production or for producing
specimen shade trees. Close spaced trees will
require pruning to open up foliage for light.
Most varieties remaining show little
problem from scab. But trees of the scab
susceptible Delmas variety were observed to
be seriously damaged by the disease and
should not be planted in the area unless con-
trol measures are to be taken.
Presence of pecan trees on the campus has
provided valuable shade and allowed thou
sands of students to observe producing pecan
trees. Such observations may have helped
many decide whether to plant pecan trees
around their homes.
-~i ~
'""
ALABAMA WORMS 
ARE TOUGHER
THAN CALIFORNIA 
WORMS
PATRICIA POWELL COBB and 
MAX H. BASS, Department of Zoology 
Entomology
TIE BEET ARMYOR(RM has become a pest
of cotton, soybeans, peanuts, and several
other crops in the southeastern 
United States
in the last few years. Reports on chemical con
trol research from the southeastern and south
western regions of the United States indicate
differences in susceptibility to insecticides be
tween insect populations found in these two
areas.
A research worker in California obtained
good control of this insect on cabbage and
cauliflower with low rates of several organo
phosphorous and carbamate insecticides. An
other entomologist in Texas reported, 
at
about the same time, that he obtained good
control of the beet armyworm on alfalfa with
methyl parathion (an organophosphorous
compound).
In tests conducted during the same time
period at the Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station, scientists were unable to
control this insect with organophosphorous
compounds and only obtained control with the
carbamate compound methomyl at 1 lb. per
acre (a relatively high rate for this material).
A laboratory study was begun to try to de
termine if real toxicological differences existed
between these eastern and western strains.
This study involved the determination of LD
50's for selected organochlorine, orpanophos
in' ' m1 I n ti idc
The LD-50 Concept
The term LD-50 literally means "lethal
dose for 50% of the test animals." Stated
another way, the LD-50 is the quantity of in-
secticide required to kill 
50% of the insects,
on a weight for weight basis (micrograms of
insecticide per gram of insect). The term LD-
50 can be used when referring to any toxicant
and any population (penicillin vs. strep throat
bacteria, atomic radiation 
vs. human beings,
pesticides vs. laboratory rats, etc.) and it is a
very useful way to discuss the relative tox
icities of toxicants against a target population.
In this case the toxicants were several insecti
cides and the target population was the beet
armyworm. To understand the ID-50 con-
cept. it is necessary to remember that the
higher the LD-50 number, the less toxic the
compound (a higher number indicates that
more of the toxicant is required to reach 
the
LD-50 level).
The Laboratory Test
Two beet armyworm cultures were
established, an eastern strain from 
insects
collected in local fields and a California 
strain
from specimens provided by the University 
of
California, Riverside. Both cultures 
were
maintained in the laboratory on an artificial
,11(,t d it Auburn.
Both strains 
were tested with 
methomyl,
carbaryl. methyl 
parathion, EPN, 
aldrin, en-
drin, and acephate. Stock solutions 
of
technical materials 
and dilutions 
were pre
pared in acetone. Each larva was dosed with 1
microliter of insecticide-solvent solution
hich was applied to the dorsal 
surface of the
Isdv with a microapplicator.
The following procedure 
was used to test
lrvae from both strains. Twelve (15 day 
old)
larvae were selected randomly for 
each treat
ment level from each strain. The 12 larvae
were weighed as 
a group, mean 
weight per
larva was calculated, 
and insecticide 
dosages
were applied on the 
basis of this mean 
weight.
Four to six treatment rates plus 
a solvent
treated check were used for each insecticide
tested. Mortality counts were made 48 hr.
after treatment. LD-50 values were statis
tically calculated, 
based on the 
micrograms
of toxicants used per gram of insect.
Resistance Determined
Based on the LD-50 values, 
beet armyworm
larvae from California were more 
susceptible
to poisoning by each material tested than were
local larvae. The 
exact differences 
in suscep
tibility are presented 
in the table. Although
some degree of resistance by southeastern lar
vae was shown 
for all compounds, 
it was par-
ticularly pronounced for methyl parathion.
Fifty-eight times as much methyl parathion
was required to reach the 
LD 50 level of tox
icity among southeastern larvae as was re-
quired for California larvae.
ID-50 VA ILIs \I 48 HouRs AFTER TREATMENT FOR
15 DAY 01) BFEET ARMYWoRM LARVA\I FROM
SOUITHFAS I RN AND CA\LtI ORNIA STRA.\INS
Insecticide 
LD 50 in ug/g
S. E. Strain Cal. Strain
Methomvyl ............ 62 52
Carharyl ...... 1300 
193
Meth lI parathion ....... 700 12
EPN ................ 133 
8
Aldrin . ...... ....... 240 200
Endrin ............... 70 24
A\ cphatc . .......... 300 60
I
I
it,
ITw@
... ,
S A.
- 7- - ,
L
ir
I'S
FIG. 1. A beet armyworm beginning to 
feed on a peanut leaf. FIG. 2. Individual 
beet armyworms were laboratory 
reared in
these small plastic cups. FIG. 3. Fully 
grown beet armyworm larvae. Note 
color variation.
11
STATE CONTROL of fluid milk prices, par
ticularly retail control, is one of the most
controversial issues in the milk industry. In
Alabama a state regulatory agency established
milk prices at all levels for the past 40 years
until January 1977, when resale pricing was
discontinued. Periodically, regulation by the
Alabama Dairy Commission (formerly Milk
Control Board) has become a public and
political issue. Currently, the future of state
regulation of milk prices in Alabama is un-
certain.
A central issue of control by a state agency
is the correctness of established prices. An
argument against state control of retail prices
is that such agencies tend to set prices higher
than would be established by competitive
forces in the market. 
Many people simply
claim opposition to price control. On the
other hand, supporters claim that regulation
helps ensure an adequate supply of 
milk,
provides market stability, and maintains
reasonable milk prices that are neither
excessive nor discounted.
How do retail milk prices in Alabama com
pare to those found in other markets? To
measure price levels, comparisons were made
of retail prices in Alabama and several other
southern markets. Also, milk price changes
were related to movements in certain
economic indicators.
Several problems are faced in studying retail
milk prices. Milk is sold through various
distribution systemsi and outlets, as well as in
several products and container sizes. Each of
these market alternatives may affect retail
price per unit of milk. The practical choice in
price analysis is to select the 
major product,
container size, and place of sale. According to
Dairy Commission records, approximately
53% of all fluid milk product sales in Alabama
were gallons (32.4%) and half-gallons (20.8%)
of homogenized wholesale milk in October
I In May 1976, 92% of milk sales in Alabama were
by wholesale distribution and 8% on retail delivery
routes.
TABLE 1. A SUMIMARY OF HAL F GALLON
MINIMUM RETAIL MII K PRICES.
ALABAMIA. 1959-1977
Effective Retail minimum
dates price
Nov. 1, 1959-Mar. 15, 1967 .....
Mar. 16, 1967 Aug. 31, 1970 ....
Sept. 1, 1970 Jan. 31, 1973......
Feb. 1 1973June 30, 1973 ......
July 1, 1973 Sept. 13, 1973 ......
Sept. 14, 1973 Feb. 20, 1974 .....
Feb. 21, 1974 Dec. 31, 1974 .....
Jan. 1,1975 Apr. 13, 1975 .....
Apr. 14, 1975-Jan. 21, 
1976 .....
Feb. 1, 1976 Jan. 10, 19772 .....
Cents
52-541
57
62
66
68
74
80
87
85
87
Source: Pricing orders of the Alabama Dairy
Commission.
I Retail prices varied by markets within the
State.
2 Minimum retail prices were 
decontrolled.
FUTURE STATE CONTROL
OF MILK PRICES?
1976. Supermarkets are the leading retail
outlets. The gallon container, which is now
the most popular unit, was introduced in
Alabama in 1970.
TABLE 2. COMPARISONS OF CHANGES IN ALABAMA
MILK PRICES, NONAGRICULTURA INCOME
AND CONSLUMER PRICE INDL X
1960 AND 1976
December Percentage
Item 
1960 1976 
change
Retail milk price,
half gal., Alabama,
dollars .......... 0.52-0.54 0.87 67.3
U. S. Consumer
Price Index
(1967=100) ..... 87.8 174.3 98.5
Average weekly
earnings, Alabama,
dollars' ....... 75.73 191.82 153.3
1 Average weekly earnings of workers in
nonagricultural industries.
In the 17 year period since 1960, the
minimum retail price for a half-gallon of milk
was increased eight times and reduced once,
Table 1. Prices rose from 524 to 87? per half
gallon, an increase of 35? or 67%. Most of
the increases were made since 1973, which
has been a period of rapid inflation. From
November 1959 to March 1967, which was
more than 7 years, milk prices in Alabama
were unchanged. Then in 1973 the Com-
mission raised retail prices three times from
624 to 74? per half-gallon. By January 1975
prices had been increased to 874. In April
1975, the Commission granted a 2C
reduction. In February 1976, it was increased
again to 874 where the minimum remained
until the Commission discontinued retail
price control in January 1977.
TABLE 3. RETAIL PRICES FOR MILK SolI IN HALF
GALLON AND GALLON CONTAINERS IN STORES
OPERATED BY A NATIONAL CHAIN,
SELECTED MARKETS, APRIL 1977
Market Half-gallon Gallon
Dol. Dol.
Birmingham, Ala.
Store brand ........... .87 1.39
Other brand .......... .87 1.39
Atlanta, Ga.
Store brand ........... .99 1.89
Other brand .......... 1.03 1.93
Columbus Ga.
Store brand ........... .93 1.69
Other brand .......... 1.09
Jackson, Miss.
Store brand ........... .97 1.95
Other brand .......... 1.05 2.11
Pensacola, Fla.
Store brand ........... .75 1.39
Other brand .......... .87 1.67
Memphis, Tenn.
Store brand ........... .92 1.81
Other brand .......... .94 1.85
Source: Data obtained by the Alabama Dairy
Commission on approximately the 5th
of each month.
LOWELL WILSON, Department of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology
In the absence of controls, retail prices have
tended downward. Prices in many stores
initially dropped sharply and milk was used as
a price special. Gallon prices have experienced
the greatest reduction, declining from $1.74
to prices commonly ranging from $1.39 to
$1.59. The overall impact on half-gallon
prices is less certain. In some instances, half-
gallon prices are higher, particularly prices on
proprietary brands.
Changes in milk prices were compared to
changes in the U.S. Consumer Price Index
(CPI) and average weekly earnings of workers
in Alabama, Table 2. 
In the past 17 years,
(through December 1976), the cost of living
as measured by the CPI almost doubled while
earnings of Alabama nonagricultural workers
rose over 150%. In January 1977, when the
Commission decontrolled retail prices, the
minimum retail price had been increased since
1960 about 44% as much as the rise in wages
in Alabama and 68% of the rise in the cost of
living.
For several years the Dairy Commission has
obtained milk prices from stores operated by a
national chain in selected southern markets.
Retail milk prices are not established by state
agencies in any of these markets. The April
1977 information showed that retail prices
prevailing in Alabama were among the lowest
surveyed. The half gallon at 874, which was
unchanged from the minimum in effect in
January 1977, was below all other half gallon
prices with the exception of the store brand in
Pensacola. Gallon prices at $1.39 were down
35( from the January minimum and were
substantially below reported prices in the
other markets.
Following de control, milk prices frequently
fluctuate widely before market stability is
again achieved. In Alabama, the immediate ef-
fect was sharply reduced retail prices.
However, comparisons with prices in other
markets in the region suggest that the longer
run effect will be rising prices in Alabama
more in line with prices in the region.
FOLIAR FUNGICIDES
FOR SOYBEANS
P. A. BACKMAN, R. RODRIGUEZ KABANA and MAX HAMMOND
Department of Botany and Microbiology
SOYBEANS through the years have been
regarded as a stepchild crop, returning only a
marginal profit to the owner. The economics
of crop production prevented farmers from
utilizing costly pesticides to increase yields.
During the past 4 years, however, the aver-
age price of soybeans has risen steadily, to
a present level of more than $10 per bu. This
improved economic position has prompted in-
creased research at Auburn University's
Agricultural Experiment Station to determine
soybean disease losses and evaluate control
measures.
Since 1974, tests have been conducted at
various locations in Alabama to evaluate the
response of soybeans to foliar fungicides. The
fungicide benomyl (Benlate ? 50WP) was of
particular interest because it had already
shown promise in a Texas research project,
and was being actively promoted by its
manufacturer. The tests reported here were
carried out with two applications of fungicide
applied at mid-late bloom and 14 days later.
These times of application were chosen on the
basis of results from other scientists
throughout the southeast.
Table 1 is a summary of yield results from
1974-1976. This table reflects potential
benefits if the farmer routinely applies
fungicide to his soybeans. Table 2 reports only
those locations that were wet (rainfall, heavy
dews, etc.) during the bloom to pod-fill
periods. In Alabama, the following diseases
TABLE 1. MEAN YIELD OF SOYBEANS FOLLOWING
FUNGICIDE TREATMENT (ALL LOCATIONS)
Fungicide Rate/acre 
Yield Percent
oz. lb. increase
Benlate ...... 8 43.4 10.4
Du-Ter ...... 8 42.4 7.9
None ....... .- 39.3 -
were found to occur (in order of importance):
Foliage Disease: brown spot (Septoria); frog
eye (Cercospora); bacterial blights
(Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas); downy
mildew (Peronospora).
Stem and Pod Diseases: anthracnose
(Colletotrichum); pod and stem blight
(Diaporthe); purple stain (Cercospora); and
stem canker (Diaporthe).
Of these diseases, anthracnose and brown
spot cause the greatest losses; however, on
some occasions, severe losses have occurred
from pod and stem blight, and stem canker
organisms. Brown spot causes premature
defoliation; successful control is evidenced by
a longer period of leaf retention. Anthracnose
and pod and stem blight both cause severe pod
damage, and subsequent blanking (empty
pods) and seed damage. Symptoms of these
diseases are seldom visible at the time when
fungicides should be applied.
Data developed during the past three
seasons and the fact that symptoms of the
most damaging diseases are not visible when
fungicides need to be applied, indicate:
(1) When weather conditions are conducive
to disease development (rain, fog, or heavy
dew) during bloom, a fungicide should be ap-
plied at mid-late bloom.
TABLE 2. SOYBEAN YIELDS BU./ACRE FOLLOWING
FUNGICIDE TREATMENT (WET LOCATIONS)
Test
1 . . . . . . . . . .
2 ..........
3 . . . .. . . .. .
4 ..........
5 . .. . . . . . ..
Mean .......
Bu. increase..
Percent increase
Fungicide
Control Benlate Du-Ter
(untreated) 8 oz. 8 oz.
. . 39.6 44.3 42.7
.. 17.6 21.9 18.5
... 56.8 62.0 61.9
. . 38.4 42.1 38.3
. . 34.7 41.0 40.3
. . 37.4 42.3 40.4
... 0 4.9 3.0
. 0 . 13.1 8.3
(2) A subsequent application should be
made 14-18 days later if weather conditions
persist or develop.
(3) Either or both of the applications may be
omitted if the weather is dry and unfavorable
to disease development.
(4) Benlate 50 WP 8 oz. per acre at each ap-
plication is the only fungicide presently
recommended by Auburn University.
(5) Beans should be harvested as soon as
possible after maturity, especially if they are
destined to be seed beans.
Application of Benlate by air costs between
$12-14 per acre for both treatments.
Assuming 5 bu. of extra beans will result
(Table 2), with a value of $7 per bu., the far-
mer will realize $35 more per acre by
following these recommendations. In addition,
early beans usually have less fungi on the seed
and slightly better germination.
Mention of a trademark or proprietary product
does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the
product, nor does it imply its approval to the ex-
clusion of other products that may also be suitable.
14
T HE EUONYMUS SCALE, Unaspis euonymi
(Comstock), is a major scale insect pest
in all temperate regions of the world, ex-
cept Australia. It attacks a number of hosts in
cluding bittersweet, boxwood, camellia.
euonymus, hibiscus, holly, ligustrum, and
pachysandra. This armored scale insect
develops in great numbers and is very difficult
to control.
Euonymus scale is very common in
Alabama, often causing complete defoliation
or death to numerous varieties of evergreen
euonymus. Climbing euonymus is more often
infested than some of the upright forms and
plants growing closest to buildings seem to be
damaged more than those growing where
there is free air circulation.
The euonymus scale is difficult to detect un-
til after it has caused serious damage. The first
indication of attack is the occurrence of
yellowish or whitish spots on leaves. Heavy in-
festations will cause leaves to turn yellow and
drop (Figure 1). Under such conditions a nor
mally green plant may become bare by mid-
summer.
Like most scale insects, the euonymus scale
forms a tough cover of waxes and proteins
which is enlarged as they grow. The female
scale covers are about 1/16 in. long and look
like dark brown oyster 
shells (Figure 2A).
They are found mainly on the stems and oc-
casionally on the leaves. The male covers are
elongate and white with three longitudinal
ridges (Figure 2B). They occur in the greatest
numbers on the underside of leaves and lower
branches of the plant. Their conspicuous
white color on green leaves is the best signal
that this pest is present.
In Alabama the euonymus scale over-
winters as fertilized adult females. Orange-
yellow eggs are laid under the female scale
cover in early spring and typically hatch
during the latter part of March. 
The nymphs,
commonly called crawlers, crawl to other
parts of the host plant or are blown to other
susceptible hosts. Most crawlers settle on new
growth. There are three generations of
euonymus scale per year in Alabama, with
crawlers emerging in March, June, and
August.
?5i ,?
FIG. 1. Severely damaged variegated
euonymus shrub (foreground) as a result
of heavy infestation of euonymus scale.
Frequent treatments with pesticides are
usually required for control. Best results were
obtained by spraying during crawler emer-
gence periods and repeating at 10 day
intervals for three treatments. Summer sprays
for crawler control include carbaryl 
(Sevin,
Sevimol), dimethoate (Cygon) and malathion
(Cythion), used according to label directions.
A dormant spray, such as Volck Oil Spray,
used in early spring before new plant growth
starts will also help control euonymus scale.
RATE AND DEGREE OF INFESTATION OF VARIOUS VARIETIES OF EUONYMUS PLANTS BY EUONYMUS SCALE
1976
Number of plants
Variety infested at end Degree of infestation
of 1976
Euonvmus alalus compacta .................. 1 out of 8 1 light
Euonymusfortunei acutus .................. 1 out of 8 1 light
Euonymusfortunei carrier .................. 6 out of 8 1 heavy, 2 medium, 3 light
Euonymusfortunei kewensis ................. 2 out of 7 2 light
Euonymusfortuneisarcoxie ................. 6 out of 8 1 medium, 5 light
Euonymusjaponicus ...................... 7 out of 8 3 heavy, 3 medium, 1 light
Euonymus kiautschovicus. .................. 0 out of 8
Euonymus sieboldianus .................... 5 out of 8 1 heavy, 4 light
I Light infestation = only a few scale insects on plant.
Medium infestation = infestation limited to original infestation area.
Heavy infestation = general infestation of entire plant.
FIG. 2. Illustration of male and female
euonymus scale on common evergreen
euonymus.
Cutting back heavily infested euonymus
shrubs and hedges and spraying new shoots
to protect them from reinfestation can also
help.
An alternate control method utilizing
natural host plant resistance of euonymus
plants to attack by the euonymus scale is
currently being investigated by entomologists
in Auburn University's Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. This research indicates
there is a varietal difference in susceptibility of
euonymus plants to attack by the euonymus
scale. In 1975, eight varieties of euonymus
plants were planted in an 8 x 8 latin square
design. These plants were inoculated with
scale by tying a 2 in. length of euonymus
stem, heavily encrusted with egg-laden female
euonymus scale, to each test plant. Test plants
were monitored through 1976 to determine
the rate and degree of infestation in the eight
included varieties. Results are presented in the
table.
Because of apparent resistance to euonymus
scale, Euonymus kiautschovica (spreading
euonymus) can be used as a substitute for E
japonica (common evergreen euonymus)
where low maintenance plants are desired.
THE EUONYMUS SCALE
IN ALABAMA
M. L. WILLIAMS, C. H. RAY, and I. E. DANIELS
Department of Zoology-Entomology
iii~
Economics of Solar Energy for Broiler Production
MORRIS WHITE, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
ROBERT N. BREWER, Department of Poultry Science
T IE POULTRY INDUSTRY has grown rapidly
during the past two 
decades, especially
in the South. Although poultry production
already ranks as one of the most efficient food
supplying industries in the Nation, efforts
continue to improve efficiency of all stages of
production and marketing.
Past efforts toward improvement have em
phasized areas where improvement would
yield the greatest benefit. For example,
development of labor saving techniques was
given priority over methods of conserving
energy during the time when energy
requirements could be supplied from several
sources at relatively low cost.
Recent year energy shortages and high costs
have changed the thinking of the poultry in-
dustry and made energy use a problem of
major concern. New developments in energy
sources and supplies are now receiving special
consideration in the quest for greater ef
ficiency. However, new technology must be
both physically and economically feasible.
Completed research results show that a sub
stantial proportion of the energy needs for
brooding young poultry can be obtained from
solar radiation. The economic feasibility of
using a solar heating system was examined in
Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station research. The economic data were
developed on the basis of research results from
a potential solar conversion system and using
currently relevant cost data.
Adding a solar heating system requires
some adaptations. Costs for both fuel and non
fuel inputs change, so estimates were com-
puted for five situations. The results are
reflected in annual costs per 1,000 birds
grown, given in the table.
Cost estimates were made for five broiler
production systems comparing conventional
and solar heating methods, as explained in the
table. Data used in making estimates were ob
tained from poultry industry representatives,
including producers and contractors.
For systems 1, 2, and 3, estimates were
based on a unit that consisted of a house with
12,096 sq. ft. (36 x 336 ft.), insulated roof
and ends, and side curtains. Placement rate
was 1 chick per 0.8 sq. ft., five batches per
year, with single stage brooding.
In systems 4 and 5, multi stage brooding
was evaluated. Multi stage brooding assumes
adequate disease control when birds of dif
ferent ages are housed in different sections of
the same building. Floor space was increased
to 21,002.4 sq. ft. (36 x 583.4 ft.). In addition
to roof and end insulation, 83 ft. of the side
walls were insulated. Placement rate was the
same as in other systems, but the number of
batches increased to 10.
Years of useful life were 
20 for buildings,
712 for equipment, and 15 for solar units.
Amortization was at the rate of 8%. Cost of
L.P. gas was estimated at 36( per gal.
Changing poultry brooding management
apparently can substantially reduce amount of
fuel used. Partial house brooding with lowered
ceiling and well insulated brooding area can
contribute to a 40 45% saving in fuel. Produc-
tion cost per thousand could be reduced ap
proximately 10%.
As indicated by estimates in the table, solar
energy brooding is not economically feasible
under present management techniques. In
stallation of a solar unit in single stage
brooding could reduce the volume of fossil fuel
used by 75%, according to the estimates, but
production costs per thousand birds were in
creased almost 9%. These estimates were
based on current prices for buying and in
stalling solar equipment in relation to alter
native energy sources, and on the basis of
current technology.
Using solar radiation as a source of energy
has the disadvantage that the amount available
can be limited by cloudy or inclement
weather. On the other hand, it has the distinc
tive feature of being available in some quantity
almost every day. Making continuous use of
this available supply of energy greatly im-
proves the chances for economic justification
of a solar unit.
Using solar energy in a multi-stage broiler
brooding system resulted in a savings of
almost 80% of the fossil fuel required. Produc
tion cost per thousand broilers was reduced
about 16% from that for single-stage brooding
using a solar unit.
With current cost and price 
relationships,
savings from multi stage brooding would pay
for the solar unit in approximately 14 years.
Whether multi-stage brooding proves feasible
will also depend on its effect on such factors as
transportation and handling and other costs.
COMPARATIVE CO)STS OF I)11FFEREN'I BROIIiR BROODING SYSiIPMS WliH CONVENIONAL A\N) SOLAR
ENI RGY SoURCFs
Initial Brooding
Brooding method building Annual Fuel Value of cost
and energy system equipment cost saved fuel saved per 1,000
investment birds
DoL Dol Gal Dol. Dol
1 ............................ 26,600 5.981 79.75
2 ............................ 26.380 5,343 1,691 609 71.24
3 ............................ 35,153 5,806 2,314 833 77.55
4 ............. ......... 43,700 8,379 3,382 1,218 55.86
5 .......................... . 56,375 9,805 4,906 1,766 65.37
I Brooding systems are: 1 = whole house brooding, conventional heating; 2= single stage partial house
brooding, conventional heating; 3 = single stage partial house brooding, solar heating. 4 = multi-stage
partial house brooding. conventional heating: and 5 = multistage partial house brooding, solar heating.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
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