of agricultural research Ik Volume 23, No. 4 Agricultural Experiment Station R. Dennis Rouse, Director Winter 1976 Auburn University Auburn, Alabama DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS no'\ \l 'ItC is agr icultuiral i escatcli xx ortlc' We hasve akss axs beeni cciceriied wsithi profit or beniefit from iiixestmenit oIf capital or labor. Today, the popular term is cost-beiieft ittio id it i, is iipmtn li that thie public be concerned about this latin itl piblx soppt cd research. Oser the years, mnans detailed stud- ics hasve been made of benefits relat isc to cost o~f agriccultural research Ib\ St ate Agricultural Experimnt Stations Mnd ITSDA, but noiie receintly. lit ic cei it xx ecks, txxo studies swhich comple mnit each other hasve been reported " at cI sexveial interesting comiparisni I moade. They sllo\\ that tront 19:39- 197:3, funding for publicly scupported pr oductioui agricultuire re~search andi extceisioni inicasecl at 3% per Near but inflatioii (huriiig this time increased at 4% aniiually. Therefore, at net de- cr ease iii research and extension pull- R. DENNIS ROUSE chasinig poswer resulted. Records shows a considerable shift itn thle kind of research and cd- uicational programs. Esveii so, analy ses shiosscc that for each dollat spent during the period 19:39-197i3 onl production agriculture ic- search and extension (State Agiricuiltural Expeimeinit Station, State Cooperative Extension, and USDA), tile v alue of agricultural out- put of this N ation ecquated to at constant 1958 dollar increased $4.30). Anals ses also point out a multiplier factor asscciatedl wxith agricul- tural production wxhich increases total net beitefit fromr agricultural productivity by 1.6. This is anl iinpressix elY favorable total i tet benefit to cost ratio. \Nhen past per formaiice aitch poteiitial benefits wxere analyzed for variouis specific areas of researchi anic hcncfits projected over the inext 25 years from inv5esting adcditional dollars into research, faxv- orable returns are indicated. For examplle, insvestinents in beef and foirage research are projected to prosvide an annual rate cf return of 16.5%, additional investmeiits in corn research :32%, soyheans :31%, swsinie oxver 50%, aiic clair 38%. The committee of scientists xx ho made this economic analysis rep- reseiited every reginl of the United States and I hasve confidence in their ireport. Their data shoxx agricultur al p)rodluctivity growvth inl the United States siince I1d3d has been at the rate of 1 .85% comn- pocuncled annually . Public atd cplriv ate research tcogether weith ex- tension and education accolunt for at mlajor patrt of this increase, he- cause they accouitt for techiinology and idiffisioin. This perfoimnice is more striking xx bet one considlers that it wyas aiccomp~lishecd xwithi decreasing putrchasing poxx er aiiclia broadening o~f diversity of p~rob~leims the public cdeinids be giveit attentioii. A major component of this broacdening is tile necessity for more re- search resources to he clixvertecd to cdefensisve research. ( Defenisivec research is that conducted to prose or re-prose. generally for thle sake of regulatory agenex , somnethinig that is ahreads kiicown andicl ac cepted as valicd in the scientific commntity. ) A recent studs' by the Agricultural Researc'h Institcte indicated that 20'% of tile attricci- tural industry research effort in this Nation is cdefeitsiv e research. If present trends in i egclatorv actixvity citntinues and un ciless theire is at significant increase iii public research Support. this could reach 50% wvithiin 10 years. It is essential that agiricultural iresearch capabilities, developed wvith suich great effort iii this State and N ation, be maiittained amid sustained. This capability needs to be recognized as at public re- source tllat must lbe fosteted - Ilot a public expense that should he curtailed. It is anl investment in both the preseiit amid future \xNelI- being of all living persons and their descendenits. 4. , wie 4cewc4c" , . , Iji ~ngca \ ito I sciJr., Assis- tant Professor of" Agricultural Engineet- lug, is author of the story on page 3 that dlescribles the iewv center pivot irrigation .s .tused to irrigate field re- seairch areas at the WVire- .rias Substation, flead- lan1. His wvork in setting uip this system to eliminate dr ought as a limiting fac- tor in field crop studies is (1st one phaise of his re- carchi cfforts dealing wxith \i aions aspects of Soil and tli i ( crc. In addition to studies coicctitiid wxith efficient use of irrigation \5 ater for crop piroduction, hie is also xx oiking on. projects dealing with soil draitiagfe aindc other xvater-soil rel atin- Ships. A iiatix e of Gr eeinville, South Caro liuna, Rochester (lid his undergraduate ,studs at Clemson Un iiversity and receivedc bath M.S. aiid Ph.D. degrees from North C arn ia State Ui iversity. He joiinedc the Aubuniti faculity in 1970 wvithlia joit teaching and research appointment iii the School of Agriculture and Agricultural 1Experinicnt Station. Hle holds nicmbeirship ini American Sceyof AgriultrlEgnes Na- Tile lIrrigation Association, and the hoiior .societies CGam ma Si gTia Del ta and c Alph a Zeta. HIGHLIGHTS of Agricultural Research WINTER 1976 VOL. 23, NO. 4 A quarterly report of research published by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabamna. R. DENNIS ROUSE-- STANLEY P. WILSON- Cnks. F. SIMM~ONS-- T. E. COISLEY------- E. L. McGss~w----- R. E. STEVENSON --- Roy ROBERSON ----- ---------Director Associate Director .Assistant Director -Assistant Director ----------- --E ditor _Associate Editor ---Assistant Editor Editorial Advisory Committee: STANLEY P. WILSON; 0. L. CHAMBLISS, Associate Professor of Horticulture; WALTER D. KELLEY, Assistant Professor of Botany and Microbiology; EARLx L. WIGGINS, Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences, AND) E. L. McGRAW. Auburn University is an equal opportunity employer. ON THE COVER. This irrigation system per- mits irrigating field crop test areas at the Wiregrass Substation, see story page 3. Center Pivot Irrigation Provides Flexibility for Field Research EUGENE W. ROCHESTER, JR., Dept, of Agricultural Engineering JAMES G. STARLING, Wiregrass Substation R _\ rI V\ A I IONS ill liiti l c li ltha eixe interest iii iii igatioll throughout the( Souitheast. Thcse illiluxa- tioiis hiaxve proided at xsay of applshg xxi% atc it it a millinilim Of distur I aioe to otheir field oiperation s, xx lil e gixvin g a prifi- ab~le return oil tile f arn i lixestm jei. One of till' in mix at ions is the ceiiter p ixv(t illrigatioin 5' 5tel) xxhichI is beiig usetd onin mainy Alabamina Lii ins to irri gate large square or circular fields. C'eitei pivo(ts as liirge as 400t)acre calpacitx hax e been iinstalledl ill somelt I egiuls of thie -Xationl, liut tile most commn sizte fits a quairter section lot Luid anld irrigates 130-l 50 acres. Althioiig Itte inetds of field research idilffei firlm ailiii I requiremnets, a ceniter pix (t sx stei is proiitlig ineeded flex- ilhihitx, at thel Wssiregi ass Subhstationll IeadLaid. Field expeli mi1lIts xxithl 1 )eMA,lti soxhbcal s, and1( corin alte coilduicttd at this uiiit o~f the Aubur ItiriIIixersi tx Agi icultUr-al Experinit Station. Projects x arx from studx ilg ctiltural piractices to tdisease and pest conltrol. Ill past x cal s di aliht oftenl caused mnoisturie stress, xxhlichl treqleiltl redulced teffcctixveiess of thle researcli. Nosy that the irrigatioii capabiity has bieen added, field re- search canl he condtuctedi undei ideal soil moisture coinditioiis. The five toxx r. 40 acie, ctlnter pivot sy steml shoxxn iil the photograiph xxas tised iii 1976 to irrigate corn iil 20) atires antI pellults oil 20 acres. Nuieluis plot experiments xxere incor- Center pivot irrigotion system used to irrigate experimental pea- nuts and corn at the Wiregrass Substation, Headland. p01 ated inl the p)Caunot aci ea g. E tCt Of' -Soil Moi stume col it el wxas not studi11ed, I uit hi igh imois tutre lexvels were desired to axvoid icild losses I rum moisture stress. OJperationl ot the ceniter piv ot sy stem is relatixvely simple. Thie inotor-(lix eii (electiric dive) sx 'stemn is positioned at the edge of the peanlut field, the pump is started, and a semi- circular area of peaniuts irrigated. WVateing is stopped at the desired location 1)x' anl attomatic stop) sx stein (at swxitch and mleehaiiical positioner called a pre-selected stop) . The sy stem anl thenl)C ueisedf to irrigrate peanuts again or lie mox dt 0Vlocatioi ill the corn field. T'he pre-selected stop cani ie adjusted to irrigate specific plots to determine effects of irrigation, anti wxedige-shiaped plots c2an he ideintifiedl and irandomized. The electric di xe is used to positioni the toxxers at the bleginning of the plots. Then the ptip is started, the plot is irrigated, and finally the system stops automatically at the desired location. Foi iesearch flexibility , txx pjliv ot locations xwere established xwithi electrical xwiiring and pipe installed to each. The sxystem becomnes tossable liy turning the xxhieels so they are parallel to its length. It can then he moved from oiie section to an- other so extra research areas cali lbe reached for irrigation. As the sxystem makes its circle, at one poinlt the end sprink- ier is close enough to xxet a public road. To eliminate this safety hazard, anl end gunt shutoll xxas installed. This shutoff is siimply at sxwitch and soleiioid x alve xxhlichi bypasses the cld sprinkler as the sx 'stem approaches the road. The shutofl also call lie uised to pai ti al l irrigate tI e con ers of a squaiire field. WVater for the iirrigation xx steiin is obtaiined from a reservoir located 2,800 ft. from the pixvot. A 6-iii. P\' ] lie conv~eys the xxater fromt the centifuigal pump to the xxstem. Poxver toi the drixve motors is supplied lbx undeirgrouind xxiires place'd parallel to the PVC pipe. Ili addition to thle 4-puxver con- dluctors, another conductor circuit alloxws automatic ptimp shutdoxwn should the sxystem stop moxving. 'FTe sx ,ystein is fully .ii itoii ted( anldt call ble operated ('oiltill 11o siN. 'e/ Drawing of center pivot irrigation system at the Wiregrass Sub- station illustrates flexibility for research operations. PEANUT SEED TREATMENTS: WHEN TO APPLY T IE PEAXNT seed induistiry is somews unlusuali, because the hiarXvestinlg (( billing) olperationl does not leave tile s. in a form reacy for1 comm~er cial co llo Three to 4 mionlis after ha X c'stilg, I nut sI l ei m 1u st pr~cetss tile ilari es polds to remove thc' she]]. It is colon p1ractice' ill Ala(bamna to waXXit 1-:3 11ot) ,.fter sliellil ig to)a~p seed treatin fun1gicidets. Si l'lers cit e tw XXin (ill reas fcr this delax (1) it 'allowXs timue to germination tests 1o il l lts to findi til x\\itii highest germina~tioin, and1( (2) a this delay tihe\- ihave a better idea of inarket clemnin and( ( c all inoi'e accura treat the reqcuired quian tity of seed. latter point is c'onisicdered inl-port ant cause any pt'aluts treated wXithi fuiigi'i aiid not sold as seed peanuts cannlot ei edible food channlels beeciuse of fuiiii conltamnation. Duinlg some yeairs sufficient seed lots aire fouild that 1i7 minimuimi standards of gc'iii iatioll certification. In these year'. standcarcds fr'equenltly lowverecd. A stcicl wvas developed aIt Auburiin I x'ersity's Agricultuiral Expc'rime'nt Stat that woud indicate: ( 1) XXhiether or a shleling machine is inoc'ulating pell seed XXith disease fcjigi; and (2) wX htt or not immediate application of tireatment funlgicidles to shelled pea'. keriiels Ilas a1115v(advXanotage over' diIlai PAUL A. BACKMAN and JOHN M, HAMMOND Department of Botany and Microbiology hat Obiectives )III- ccI Ilii fir st obliectisc \\it', studied I) el' spi Isng the heater lars of tile Sheller W 5(11 -ih ho~jd spectrilli hifungic'ides (ifla- gel iiiatioii is imi (IX t'ilX\\hein tlle slec [1(11 is (id'con tam01ilnated." Test retsuilts sh~owed'I iths 00 ilIo X Iljl'lt under(' tlleS(' coniditionis. etit Th'is exerimlenit wXas hillipeied, IlowseXer. Oils by tile t'chiiical dliffiult ' of' ticatilIig thet rui internl l pairts of a commer cia:l sl1(ller ls, withtil unicide, an~d by tuec fact tilat re'- ter ontamnal~tion c'all Ot't'51 as fast as till- tl' treated (l moldy ' peanults e'lter thle mra- tE chllme. T o' het secondt 0h 1 'ctiXc s'hiowXed lilliti I)- ' 11(11 promise. One, piollnl samples 1)f (It's 1 )ealllts wvere reml~oved't from thet sill(' 1 tel ilm)mnedia tely after' shel linig. Sonmc Xwere' 'idle tl eittli iiinimtl'v wXithi Difolatall-Bo0 in- trali, some werte treated 2 wXeeks la ter, ieet and somne 5 wveeks later. Thr ee ounilces fo r at,(' Jii i101 not nut her- eed niut ved of Difolatan-Butran (60-20) wercie used per 100 l1). of seed. Seed wseie stored at .50 _t 5' F until geimiliations were con- dctedc 6 weeks after shelling. Kernel moisture content was 5.6%l. Seed were stored in loosely-tied plastic bags withi seral replications per treatment to al- low statistical comparison. Results The results shown in the following ta- ble inclicote that peanumt seeds treated immediately after shelling display ii- creased germination compared with pea- nuits treated at later dates. Two types of damage were observed: (1) an increase in clean Dnongermiitable seed with delayed treatment, indicating an increase in in- fections thiat were controlled by seed treatment fungicides; and (2) an increase in. moldy seed, indicating that deep- seated infections not controlled by fungi- cides were more common. These results indicate that instead of delay in g peanut seed treatment until shelling is complete, seedsinen should in- corporate an "in-line" systemy onl their eqtimellt to tr eat seed immediately after comnpletion of shelling, debris removal, sizing, and electric eye examination. The magnitude of the reduction in germnlla- tion indcicates that anl 'in-line' treating systemt could mneant the differ ence be- twee ecertificatioin or noii certification of a seed lot. 1 In addition, reduced plantiing rates resulting from better germination could reduce growers' costs. Fiiallv, the seedsmnat wvould reduce costs be~cause tileS wXould save the cost of the two bar- ging operations presently used, and in 0i 1c opleration would end up with the seed treated, bag 'ged, and ready for market immediately after shelling. Mn tionm of a trademark o~r proplietory produclt clot's not cons'titute a guiarantee or wsarranlty of the' product, nor does it impis it', approval to the excltusion of other prod- ucts that mfay also be suitable. ']'his studyl was supporte,( iii part by a grant from the Alabamna Peanut Producers A\ portin of this study was publishied prc- vious'kl 1'laimt Disease Reporter (6t: 1-3). EF"ECTIS OIF IN IE' RXALS Hi~lrV hWi 'A NO SHELiING. AI Sli 'r)I' iEA_ TXENTr ON SiE in ( i N \ i ON ANi) FU1NGAL COLONIZAIO[(N' Tillie ( weeiks) Percen'lt Pt'l cent Per cent Per-cent fromt sh~ellin~g total c'lean cleanl, not lldly tol tre':tille't g('rlillationl gel ilinateci gerolinateci seed 0- 79.3 a 79.2a 17.2 b :3.5 1b 2 72.7 at) 72.6 b 21.6 be 5.8 b 5 70.6 b 70.4 b 23.1 e 6.4 b Nontreated -------- 56.0 c 8.9 c 5.0 a 86.0 a 'Values within each coluliln followved by the samne letter are not significantly different 1) 0.0)5) using Duncan's Multiple Railge Test. FIG. 1. Spottiness in hatch resulting from variation in time eggs were held. to do with hatchability and sulbsequent performance of broiler chicks. \Methods of storing on the farm and at the hatch- ery, length of storage, and age of breeder flocks were found to have a decisive ef- fect on embryonic mortality, chick qual- itv, and( Ih il A\11 11 I a!li\ sity A,: search The storage and latchabilitx i \\ell estal, lished. A decline in hatchability is re( ognized in eggs held in storage for 5 dax and a sharp decline is evident after days. In addition, eggs held 7 days o; longer show problems in the overall hatchery operation and may be respon- sible for "dragging" or "spotty" hatches. Eggs held for a week or less will hatch in 21 days, whereas eggs held 7-14 days are delayed 5-8 hours. Those held i5 or more days require almost 22 days to hatch. Setting fresh along with "held" eggs or eggs from a young flock along with others from an old flock produces non- uniform hatches. Some trays in the hatcher may be completely hatched while others are just pipping, Figure 1. This practice is often responsible for poor quality chicks and above average embrv- onic mortality. An accurate egg inven- tory would eliminate guessing egg and/or flock age and allow the hatcher nan to set eggs of compatible age and storage time together. The result would be im- proved hatches and quality of chicks. An Auburn study was done to deter- mine if problems caused by holding eggs 0 ho bho ty Young flock 50 Old flock 7, 4 Doys in storoge FIG. 2. Hatchability of young vs. old flocks in relationship to egg storage time. too long carry over to growing broilers. Growth rates to 8 weeks were compared among chicks from eggs held for periods of I day up to 21 days, trayed according to length of time held. There was a noticeable decrease in 8-wveek weight of birds hatched from eggs held 5 days or longer, as shown below: Days of storage 1-7 8-14 15-21 4-week iwt., lb. 1.39 1.37 1.33 8-itek iwt., lb. 4.11 4.06 :3.95 just how length of egg storage affects market weight of broilers is not known. It is speculated, however, that any stress placed on the embryo before incubation xwill adversely affect performance of the chick after hatching. The effect of length of egg storage on hatchabilitv and its relationship to age of breeder flock is illustrated by Figure 2. As noted, the hatchabilitv curve changes with age of bird, indicating that eggs from young flocks can be held longer than eggs from older flocks without dras- tically affecting hatchability. Eggs from older flocks should be set as soon after lay as possible to obtain maximum hatch- ing potential. Knmown physical changes occur in eggs during storage. One of these is weight loss due to moisture evaporating through the shell, and this is influenced by age of flock. The greater weight loss of eggs from older birds during storage is prob- ably due to decline in shell quality. Cor- respondingly, there is a higher percent- age of early embryonic mortality in eggs of poor shell quality. Moisture loss could be one cause of reduced hatchabilitv of eggs from older flocks because of partial dehydration that may stress the embryo before incubation. As the data indicate, length of storage of hatching eggs not only affects hatch- ability and chick quality, but also rate of gain of broilers. Since these are eco- nomic factors, the results suggest the need for proper egg handling on the farm and at the hatcherv to ensure maximum hatching potential. Egg Handling Affects Hlatchability and Body Weight of Broilers GAYNER R. McDANIEL, Department oi Poultry Science 53, W ESL SEE\ 10 IIs t.E all the natural adxvantages for competing wxith crops. T[ins seems espeeally trute iii cotton he- cuecotton seedlings grow xloxx lx' in spring, particularly during cool wcathcr. Thserelore, wxeed control must lbe pro- videdl for a fairlx long period after crop emergence. Amiong thle research efforts attempting to shift the competitive advantage fr om wxeedls to cotton is a nexw Alabama project iovsolving the use of narrow-row planting. Ans extra competitiv eness that might re- sit from narroxv-roxv plantings could re- ducee the period during wxhich xxveeds must be controlled. Earlier research hx Auburni Unix ersitx Agricultural Experiment Station had cs- tab~lished that 6 to 9 xveeks of control is req~uired xxheni cotton is planted in nor- mial-xvidth (38 to 42 in).) rowxs. It wvas further found that leaving stands of mixed annual xxeeds in tile crop for more than 6 xxeeks xxould reduce cotton yields. The nexx project compared different sp~aced roxxs to determine the influence onl competitixveness of cotton xxiti xweecds (luring 1972-74 at the Prattville Experi- ment Field. The xweed population eon1- sisted of a mixture of annual grass and( b~roadleaf weeds. Iii oiie set of experiments, cotton xwas maintained free of wveeds for v'arious periods after cutton emergence (called 'xx'eed-free periods"). In a second ex- periment, wxeeds xxerc alloxwed to comn- pete initially for xar ious lengths of time after cotton emergence and then the cot- toss xxas kept xxeccc free for the remaindler of the season. These periods are referrmed to as "xweeks of xxeed competition." Conventional tillage xvas used in land preparation . Applications of N, P, and K 'sx'ere acecording to soil test recourienda- lions. N air 210 cotton xxas planted xxith toolbar-nmounted unit planiters, ili 21-, 31-, and 42-in. roxxs. Enough seed xvere planted to give a final stand of 3 to 4 plants per ft. of rcxx Each plot was 10.5 ft. Ihx 20 ft.. pro- xvicing 6, 4, andI 3 roxxs per plot. respec- ti-velx'. for the 21-, 31-. and 42-in. roxxs. 6 Cotton Planted 'in Close Rows More Competitive with Weeds GALE A. BUCHANAN, N. K. ROGERS, andi W,. C. JOHNSON Department of Agronomy ond Soils FRED GLAZE, Prfteulle Experiment Field Aill dlata xwec ori txx Iisnc xxaxsx arvst WVith Cott vielcs xvere As inidicate cxver, produ ings xwitls \\'her) edltto for 2 or 4 iI .sle nmocre FREE MAIN!t \Veecl-free period, weeks 0 2 __ 4 6 8 ----- 1 0 -- ----- 14 Entire season MeNians xx xaline letter (P < .05). re I akc'ii firom tI e center roxx coinVtitios il nage to tilt, Crop. As r x ros oif each plot. Cot ton shown isv the gr aph, hI oxxevxer, any longer cl b's h andc on cc each ' ear . compectition Iy wxxxeeds reducedf cotton on kept xxe fcl ree asll season, x vielc. NVicltl of roxx did not in fluene similar for all roxw spacings. effec~ts of xxeedc coinpetitions. d hxy data in the table, ]hoxx- Doring the critical insitial xweeks, both ctioss varied among roxv spac- xx ecls and cotton plants xxere relatively different xxeecl free periods, small anid about equal in hseight aiscl in xxas masintainecd xxeed free competitixvcness. Exven iii narrowx roxxs, weyeks, cotton in 21 in. srowxs thre cdistasnce betxxeen roxx w xas so great that) that iii the xxider roxxs. thsat all roxxs xxerc inidepencdenst. Thus. completitixve effects dlid nsot differ among Do 14,IILN PERIOD~S OF W EED) (((x spacings clurisng early groxxth stages. LNA-N( F AT -E HOWi L1tW VIl)H m it is slot surprising that roxv spacinlg 1) OF. Ccn ioN. I'n i sxILLE slsoxx'ec no effect on xveed competition. ERssENT Fisa ni, 1972-74 Enxvironmental conditions xwere C'ondlit- -A,\,. seed cotton x jeld/acie'_ cix e to the groxxths of hoth xxeeds amncd 21 in. 31bii. 4 21is cotton. Regardless of roxx xwidth, cotton rowxs 1 oxvS I Oxvs cousld not ob~tain a competitixve aclvasitage LI). LI). Lb. blecausxe oIf the high populatios assc rapid gr oxxths of xxeedls thait germinatecd xxitli 7,5d I t09 f 2 t1. the cotton. Furstherm norce, cottons groxxn 1 ,070t) 566 c 482 1 St) 1-6 h) 1,374 d 1,1-15 ce In ssarrow r oxxs us dcr xxeecl free conch- 2,45:3 as 1,980 C 1,722dc tions has siot shsoxxn a yield acdxanstagce 2,480 a 2, 168 lic 2,1-32 c oxver cottons iii coisxeistional-xidth roxxs. 2,.596 a 2,5:33 a.b 2,373 he Txxo major findciungs sumlmarize tlse ex- 2,8:37 a 2,819 a 2,7:38 ab einrt (1 ro wdh(ld otnfu 2,8,54 a 2,712 a 2,80)1 a ence the tolerance of cotton to initial ithimii a eioluin fiilloxxed 1's tlbc xxcc competition , and (2) nar roxx rcxxs ale not statistically cliltciemit (21-iii.) rceduscecd tle critical xx c'clfree recquircemenit xx-ien compared xxith .3] or 42-iii. roxxs. Cotton iii 21 in. roxvs produced at a relativelyN high level xwith only 4 wxeeks coi xxeecl free maintenance. This Cotton reached a competitive stage after 4 to 63 xxecks, xxheni the canopy area piroxvicded enrocgh ground coxer to nuillify sullsc uent competitive effects of emerging xxeecds. Weeds xxere able to compete longer in xider-spaeed cotton. With the 21-us. roxws, onlv 6 xxeeks olf xxecci-free maintenance was req~uirecd for cottonl yields comparable to prodcuhction xx ith ful season control. Cotton in .31-iii. roxs srIeq~uirecd 8 to 10 weyeks ouf cointroil for similar resuilts, and that in 42-in. boxxx req~uirecd slightly longer periods of cclni t rol. When xxeeds emerged and becamne cs- tablishecd xxith the cotton, remoxval of the wseecds xxithin 2 to 4 xxeeks precxentecd an,% S.ed .01-n ,. ld/Ory 3, 500 3,250 3,000 17 2,750 1 2,'500 \ 2,250 197 2,000 1,750 1,600 - # 10974 1,000 750 500 250 - 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 14 No Week, If -1dC Co,,Itt, Iffo Itt, "'eg-,c Weeds that were not removed within 2-4 weeks after cotton emergence reduced yield. V#I~< ~ e~t~ #~ 0~ ,020 'SI,. .050 SMALL SCALE FARMS IN ALABAMA E. W. McCOY Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology ean 74he Scvive? SNUMBER of farms in Alabama has changed from 257,000 averaging 68 acres to 72,000 farms of 188 acres during the 40-year period 1930-1970. While the decrease in farm numbers was dramatic over this period, the sta- tistics are misleading. A change in the census definition of farms occurred in the 1950 to 1960 counts. In 1930, farms included places of 3 acres or more hav- ing any agricultural production and places of less than 3 acres with produc- tion exceeding $250. By 1970 places of less than 10 acres were counted only if sales exceeded $250. Places over 10 acres required sales of $50 or more. As shown in Table 1 the steady decline in farm numbers from 1930 was accentu- ated in 1960 due to the change in defini- tion. Inflation has made comparisons of farm income over long periods of time relatively meaningless. Comparing only the two most recent census periods, 1960 and 1970, the major shifts occurred in the number of farms receiving less than $10,000 gross income. From 1960 to 1970 there were about 23 thousand fewer farms in the $10,000 and under group. This decrease and the decline in number of part-time farms essentially accounts for the total change in farm numbers be- tween the two periods. Small scale farms then might be de- fined by acreage or by income. In either case the number of small scale farms has and continues to decline in Alabama. The decline can be directly related to the in- crease in mechanization. Effective farm size for individual operators was limited so long as human or animal power was the principal input. With increased cap- ital inputs, farm size becomes limited to a great extent by managerial ability. The farm becomes a business. If a farmer has TABLE 1. CHANGES IN FARMS IN ALABAMA 1930-1970 Farm size (acres) Av. Year 1-9 10-99 100 and Total acper over farm No. farms (000) 1930 .. 22 202 44 257 68 1940 ... 13 168 51 232 83 1950 .. 17 144 51 212 99 1960 ... 8 70 38 116 143 1970 .... 4 38 30 72 188 50 acres of land, all suitable for row crops, planting to soybeans results in a net in- come of about $2,500. If winter grain is added, net income might be increased to $4,000. The farmer's labor is under- utilized and his income is well within the poverty level. The farmer also must own more equipment than is needed for 50 acres or be dependent on custom hire. Under these circumstances many small- scale operators have taken off-farm jobs. In spite of the trend toward increased mechanization and larger land acreage, there is a place for small scale farming. In fact small scale farming may be appro- priate for certain specialized crops. In- cluded among these specialty, labor-in- tensive crops are strawberries and bram- TABLE 2. NET LABOR RETURNS TO SELECTED SMALL SCALEFAR ENTERPRISES Labor Nt Esti- ab ouNet mated re- Acres returns total Crop quired planted per t man man hr. net hr./acre return Dol. Dol. Tomatoes (staked)_. 800 0.5 5 2,000 Cucumbers (trellis)__. 800 0.5 5 2,000 Okra - .-------100 1.0 5 500 Sweet corn__ 32 5.0 10 1,600 Melons.- 32 5.0 10 1,600 Strawberries. 160 0.5 10 800 Bramble berries ------ 160 0.5 10 800 Total labor --- 1,380 (total hr.) 9,300 ble berries, staked tomatoes, sweet corn, okra, cucumbers, spring and fall greens, and various herbs. Some specialized live- stock production also fits well on small scale units. Included among these ani- mals would be goats, pigeons, ducks, and certain fishes if ponds are available. In every case the small scale farmer must make maximum use of his own labor. By hand or animal cultivation, crop spacings can be reduced and yields per acre increased. Crops can be har- vested at the peak of maturity and market periods can be prolonged. Cucumbers, for example, can be grown on trellises for more uniform fruit development and less space requirements. The net returns to labor from 1/10 acre of cucumbers exceed the returns from an acre of soy- beans. An example of enterprises for a small scale farmer could include a % acre bed of strawberries, acre of blue or black- berries, a small family orchard of apples and peaches, two dairy cows, 50 chick- ens, one sow, 4 acres of pasture, sufficient field corn and hay for the livestock enter- prises, and non-labor competitive vege- table enterprises for cash income. A de- gree of self sufficiency is desired to re- duce cash off-farm expenditures, how- ever, the main goal is concentration on enterprises with high returns to labor and minimum inputs of capital. The berries and fruit are long lived while all of the livestock provide their own replacements plus surplus for home use and sale. If, for example, the cash crops were berries, sweet corn, cucum- bers, okra, staked tomatoes, and melons and the farmer was willing to put in 200 hours of labor per month from April to November, his income would be com- parable to most factory jobs in Alabama. The berries would require about 160 hours of labor with a concentration dur- ing the bearing season. The returns per hour of labor could exceed $10. The returns per hour for sweet corn and melons would be comparable to ber- ries while tomatoes and cucumbers would net about $5 per hour of labor. Both tomatoes and cucumbers require about 800 hours of labor over the growing sea- son with a concentration during the stak- ing or trellising stage. Okra has a long bearing period and requires frequent harvest. The returns per hour are equal to tomatoes and cucumbers but labor requirements are much lower. Looking at the small scale farm from a labor budget point of view, and con- sidering growth requirements of each crop, the net returns from the market garden would be about $9,300 or over $6 per hour for labor. The key to success for the small scale farmer is to accentuate the advantages of smallness. Specialize in production that does not lend itself to mechanization. Become self-sufficient in production and reduce cash input expenditures. Some product gap of quality and freshness has been created by large scale farming. Small scale farmers should exploit this gap and create income opportunities to enhance their level of living. Correction Of Subsoil Acidity In Cotton Production Oin Coastal Plain Soils W. T. DUMAS, Department of Agricultural Engineering B. D. DOSS, Cooperative, USDA THE COASTAL PLAIN areas of the southern United States typically have acid subsoils. Work at Auburn University's Ag- ricultural Experiment Station has clearly shown that strongly acid subsoils can drastically reduce cotton yields from those obtained on the same soil where critical subsoil acidity due to the use of residually acid fertilizer has been avoided. How- ever, there has been little or no crop yield response reported for lime incorporation to depths below the plow layer in field experiments. Studies were initiated in 1974 to evaluate the depth of in- corporation of lime required for satisfactory cotton root systemni development and plant growth on acid soil profiles. The ex- periment was located at the Agricultural Engineering Re- search Unit in Marvyn, and consisted of 20 plots, each 262:3 ft. by 75 ft., on a Norfolk sandv loam soil, with four replica- tions of five treatments. The treatments were depth of lime incorporation as follows: 1. Check (no lime) 2. Lime incorporated to 6-in. soil depth (0-6) 3. Lime incorporated to 12-in. soil depth (0-12) 4. Lime incorporated to 12-in. soil depth (after turning with moldboard plow 16-18 in. deep) (0-12) (T) 5. Lime incorporated to 18-in. soil depth (0-18) Treatments were imposed in early spring of 1974 after the soil profile pH was reduced to 4.6-4.8 b application of amn- monium sulfate during 1973. The rate of linme needed to raise pHl in the treated zone to at least 6.0 was determined 1v soil TABLE 1. SonIL p1 pDate Treatment by soil (lepth in in. Date Treatment 0-6 6-12 12-18 18-24 1/23/74 Test area 4.8 4.6 4.7 4.8 (before treatments imposed) 12/15/75 No lime .7 1.7 4.8 4.9 0-6 5.9 5.1 4.8 4.9 0-12 6.4 5.4 4.9 4.3 0-12(T) 6.4 5.8 4.9 4.9 0-18 6.0 6.5 5.1 4.8 test. All plots were initially chiseled to a depth of 18 in. to reduce physical differences resulting from subsequent lime incorporation. Lime was applied to the surface and incorpor- ated to 6-in. and 12-in. soil depths xwith a rotary tiller. The 18-in. depth of incorporation was accomplished in three steps. (1) applv lime and incorporate into the 0-9 in. soil depth with a rotary tiller. (2) turn with a moldboard plow to a depth of 18 in. (3) apply lime and incorporate 0-9 in. with a rotary tiller. Soil pH determinations before and after treatments were imposed and are given in Table 1. The pHl in the soil profile ranged from 4.6 to 4.8 before treantments \\ere imposed. The pl 1 values for December 1975 samples indicate that lime may not have been incorporated as deeply as desired on the 0-18 in. treatment. Plant height measuriements made during the growing sea- son show that rate of plant growth was greater on lime-in- corporated plots than on no-lime plots. The main difference in final plant heights at the end of the growing season was betxween no-lime and lime-incorporated plots with little dif- ference in plant heights due to depth of lime incorporation. Final plant heights averaged 28 in. for no-lime plots and 47 tc 54 in. for linme-incorporated plots. Seed cotton yield was increased by linme incorporation (Ta- ble 2). Yields were higher for plots with 12 in. or greater incorporation than on plots xwith 6 in. incorporation. Data for 197 1 and 1975 indicate that lime incorporation to 12 in. would be beneficial. Yield responses for lime incorporation below 12 in. were not consistently beneficial. The extra ex- pense of deep incorporation is probablyv not justifiable. Treatnne No lime 0-6 0-12 0-12(T) 0-18 TABlE 2. Y1ImLDS OF SiEE COToxN Poinds of seed cotton ner acre nt 885 1,688 1,999 2,092 2.1:39 1975 Av. 805 845 2,127 1,908 2,302 2,151 2,267 2,180 2,311 2,225 -6 -12 - 18 Chemically Suppressing Grass Sod Helps Overseeded Winter Annuals C. S. HOVELAND and R. F. McCORMICK, JR. Department of Agronomy and Soils J. A. LITTLE and J. T. OWEN, III Lower Coastal Plain Substation W ITH DORMANT SEASONS lasting 5-7 months, bahiagrass and bermudagrass sods are unproductive about half of each year. That's why many cattlemen overseed these grass pastures with rye or mixtures of rye, ryegrass, and arrowleaf clovers. Not only does the overseeding extend the grazing season, it also improves quality of forage produced. Amount of added grazing time is limited because seeding is generally delayed until October or November when the grass is dormant. Otherwise, the grass provides too much competition with the new seedlings for soil moisture. Application of a chemical growth suppressant to the grass sod in September should permit earlier planting and, there- fore, earlier grazing. This method has been investigated in Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station tests in recent years. At the Lower Coastal Plain Substation, Roundup? 1 (com- mon name glyphosate) was tried over a 3-year period (1973- 75) on grass sod. Application at planting in September ef- fectively suppressed bahiagrass sod and doubled the Novem- ber-February rye forage yield. On Coastal bermuda, however, Roundup gave only a small increase in rye yield. Using Paraquat? 2 was generally ineffective for suppressing growth of grass. It did not increase yield of rye forage. How Herbicides Used Pensacola bahia and Coastal bermuda sods were sprayed with different rates of Roundup and Paraqcuat in mid-Septeim- ber during each of the 3 test years. \Vrens Abruzzi rye was seeded at 50 lb. per acre with a Zip Seeder the first year and with a grassland drill the next 2 years. Gulf ryegrass was broadcast at 15 Ib. seed per acre and Yuchi arrowleaf clover at 5 lb. Nitrogen applications of 75 lb. per acre were made at planting and in Februarv, April, June, and July. Forage was harvested when available from November to September or October. Paraquat gave rapid top kill of bahia and bermuda. After several weeks, however, new growth began and continued until frost, competing with new seedlings for soil water. Top kill from Roundup was slower, but longer lasting, than fromn Paraquat. 'Roundup is a product of Monsanto Chemical Co. Paraquat is a product of Chevron Chemical Co. Winter Forage Production Total winter forage production by rye-ryegrass- anowleaf clover ranged between 4,000 and 6,000 lb. per acre and was not affected by sod treatments. However, applying Roundup to bahiagrass doubled the production of forage in autumn and early winter (November-February), Table 1. Forage produced at this time was mostly rye. A Roundup rate of /4 lb. active ingredient per acre was as effective as higher rates. Paraquat gave contrasting results, slhowing little or no effect on rye forage production. Spring production of clover was generally better on Round- lup-treated bahia sod. Neither Paraquat nor Roundup had much effect on rye seeded on bermudagrass sod. Bahia Sod Damaged Although Roundup increased November-February rye yields on bahia, it damaged the sod and decreased forage pro- duction the following summer, Table 2. Even 1/4 lb. per acre Roundup applied in September decreased June-July bahia- grass forage yields. Some of this yield reduction may be a result of shading by the heavy spring growth of ryegrass and clover. Since winter annual forages are high quality and grow when pasture is badly needed, they are more valuable than extra bahiagrass in summer. Roundup damage to bermuda- grass was much less than to bahiagrass sod. Sod-seeding winter annuals on bahia sod is less dependable than on prepared land. Forage yields are much lower on sod than on prepared land, probably because of competition for soil moisture in autumn, more nematodes, more diseases, and more insects. Paraquat did not adequately suppress bahia- grass or hernmudagrass sod to improve rve forage production. Roundup, which is not yct lahcled for use on pastures, doubled the November to Fehbruarv production of rye on bahia sod but had little effect on lernmda sod. TA1i 1. Novmxfli l-I', .n oN HYE FollACi PIODiUCTION AS AIi.e: ii TI 1 (o S Ii i 1']iii 5ISSANT (CHEMIiCALS ON B\MIAS SoD. Lov:i COSTAL PLAINx SrnBSTA'1Ox, 197:3-76 /are Dry foracg yield per acre 197:3-74 1974-75 1,75-76 Lb. Lb. Lb. Check, not seeded 1 Check. seeded 1503 Paratllat, % 1h. 180 Para(IIIat, 12, 1). 150 lRotiiidiil), ii lb. Iloin1 11i) , 12 -. .. --- 11oiodiii)o, 2 lb. _ 1.500 0 550 (140 800 L. 150 1,270 1,390 1. 640 0 880 710 570 1. 440 1 470 1 ,70 1,680 T.xiiii 2. Sr ms13,r IAniic\S FORAGE IllPODUCTION AS AiF'i( T 0liy A (lTiN-AlicIi]ii) CJonO\II SLTI'PIIESSANTr Ciiixii AIs, Loxli (i 1STAL PLAIN SUIBSTATION, 197-1-75 Si ASON Sod treatment/acre lry forage yicld per acre Juily 9 Aug. 13 Oct. 9 Total Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb. Chvck, not seeded 3,960 2,470 2,000 8,430 Check, seeded -3-680 2,140 2,450 8,270 Paraituat, 1/4 lb.. 3,300 2,150 2,420 8,170 Paraa-t. 1, th. 3,440 2.320 2,520 8,280 Roundup, l . _ 2,500 2,000 2,300 6,800 HRoiumiindup, 1/2 1). ---- -- 1,930 1,960 2,380 6,270 Roundup, 1I b. ----- - 1,340 1,760 2,230 5,330 Houndup, 2 lb... 820 1,550 2,360 4,730 New Cantaloupes Suited for Commercial Production J.D NORTON and H. M. BRYCE, Department of Horticulture C. C. CARLTON and K. C. SHORT, Chilton Area Horticulture Substation J. E. BARRETT, Gulf Coast Substation M. H. HOLLINGSWORTH, North Alabama Horticulture Substation C. A. BROODON, Wiregrass Substation CANT1ALOUPCE VARlITIS suited for comn- mnercial production in Alab am ia are rmowx ax ailable. Three v arieties dev eloped at Auihurn Univ'ersity Agricuiltuiral Experi- mnti Station proxved their \x ii I ill pLlt- ings at fixve locations. Ch iltoni and (1Gulf C oast, twxxo of thle Aumburni releases, proxved to he mnost adapted for packing iii boxees. The third ollie, Sooth Ilid, xxas am Onlg the varlie ties suited for hauling loose in trucks. Thel( three xwere compn 1 ared xwith four stan dard varicties in thle tests at the Mlaini Stat i, at Aolburn i, (i ilton Arca II orticiulturc~ SobStatinOl, ('iaiitn, 'NorthI Alilaama H orticiilture Substation, ('ulbuan, WireC grass Substation, Headland, and Culf C'oast Substation, Fairhope. Description of Test Seed xxere planted iii hills 4 ft. apart, iii roxws spaced .5 ft. apart. Fertilizerwa afppliedl accrin g to sil test i ('i.(tlieii datiolis. Alil ialditiioiiil aipplication of 1001 l1). of aiiiiiuoi iii niitrate per acre wxas applied at locations xxhere thicic \xxas 'x- (csslx c r ainfall (liiiilig the evii i groin05bg seasoili01. Plaiitiiigs xxerie iiiioe at the pr oper date for each location. laci planting xxas liai x sted fixve thues Auburn developed cantaloupe varieties pro- duce melons suited for packing in boxes. it :3-dax inteil a at the full slip stage. Y ield wxas iecorded by nurmber and % eight of mark