of agricultural research Volume 22, No. 3 Agricultural Experiment Station R. Dennis Rouse, Director Fall 1975 Auburn University Auburn, Alabama DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS I\N 'i \\ PBIM l ItS 551 V ii tiix aiicatiion tcomtmints hiave iiiixx pex nxted ii ei'ii iii tii of xxiii(cic l) a f'ti N t till' it iiiitc o f Agt r1iciltimii il VIxeiiou tto s Ilc 1 0 \1 IIivs In i- of tI ii I I ito (1 c ti l l l lI It, \ IIi(I1 1,, oTI )IIc ] ix x itch to tile xxi'iliri' oi this Vitoi of ixitv iii' th i piatc ii it illi ci tsc Ofi \i a Ril .,Icp~ t oi un 1 tiiiixx holiicr tis iitie it,( ti theo it7 liiit) arte~idhi l~)rietls t agcoTic the itiIth .DNI OS ti it arso i ntrta lt at i)iiiiis hute ijxiioi itsoe il si (TSit lli th Ii tir at'ii 'it i ' dc nir ulii'tl ftn \i'iai tiii lii er stia tha il ('iii'ltuill anti istx iiliex o liii \t o s ili il ii to iti\%l r o totl his ii'x l t h'x ti i1i.ilhlt u ox hai iii t ilex ipii ti iliti ostaix iii. i 11i'li -i ~ol liguti xf ieicil ia~riitiuri ,iiiiiix ho\\ isli ax hsslt toll thet ilili hut tou \lll fiai ioir t h s 111 itiiui'l o axx aliti ita (iIITcrd o asx ixtii I iiti ii agi- 10iClizo ioi'x earxt t x i ki [I( iii .1 of1 itil li Silx, tiixx a ixih tiii \ to anix liiitc arf impelotanxxt o iionentx stbitist b .i theseiaix i t lit-i iiist Te' teaiu A IuixoiAritiit an i ho pe oi'th Aeican fait t fori pesi'tx Coiitti'i' l iliti al t' titlilgs io abo stand Aiwit'i htis n hpis fillill -\ ixs toa 111 hdave Ni to liii \ :3a t litilits A u t Littne i other thIitll. MAiii liil to i'iil(' li..Sttt t tarmel S th o l ai cmtp oiCit'xii ar Ilcii'xx W e111 x o it nct l a ii t he) l. iutth toma t tiax xie ilt S ir iit itt 1111'l aliitiig lii l x fale" ax ot bc~lt anti tuihtr. The\ t \iill l tiriialmotiec x a ti iii' ti x lul tolul dcctil xxi t'abetu of hloth ilua liits Otrsii 11) k~ tistt Spiitkof coeitont bin xxu itl iaiii'xslocrx a Goxi 11(11 (X'ot gi to uaiit ])it() ethds xith tejt Xiiuiam o1thner sbtoxlu of tlii'w a~ iuic ofd d i'.edica o tatslistIil i o ag itisi agicture 151ii ti' 'I'ii s r' m vt is r o\ tix A'i'illca O'ti'rit that Iolrs of1( scie01st io taxtel \o'aio oi'a i (itx ( lihhhlflittbasisli'lhlili't stlitit os to, it lpiinto i'i'iuie voiw to ateit hoIis intit" l t hi ilrlthi 197. exprimentitud st'iati ili ilax t'e i ittilli. (oI' 111 ill he sttt'c out'xx h Apptediaton ])he, iifi'tisIN rl.) tteAbr l)I. Dale I_1 iflol ilih r o h oil pagei .3, is it professor iii tie iDepart- ineot of \iiitiiai aiit D~an-\ Scienctes, School1) of A-rit It tre adi Agiclturttal ~xperimeiit Stat ion. lie teaches bo0th griatiiet anid liiiitt'gi datliit ill at sci- C. encC courses and (I tlldtittt I oifimaol }oiiiei the A[I- hi1111 flcultv ill 1 963 after \N iirkitig axs a r('x('.il Iciiiitt wi .1 iW A ii the x S\it ai 1( (.1)11 m p10 xIl- xeti cii atId I )ce optIli iCt ( el ter sit\ of Fli'iiilit iii 1962. Ile hoilds tihe litatiiiii hx' llr. H uiffmani liax iisxiij Stoiwcii( (if frI ii'iiteait ill vaiouis gfax at- oiiix1pii(res aitu the rliatiioi of' shell lilt iii a ctrili/ed l Cittilivy xx xt'r. \ioi i xxiiikedi (iii( xt wa xith Sxx il t aid Com-i hiax se'rxe (is i otnisuiltaiit to sexea (Inuaiii:t iiiiiiti ii' and xsoitiherni oix'tisitit'x. If tioil a profesional comm~hfhittees5. HIGHLIGHTS of Agricultural Research FALL 1975 VOL. 22, NO 3 A quarterly report of research puillislied by tile Agricultural Experiment Station of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. R. DENNIS ROUSE ------ __-Director STANLEY' P. WILSON- -Associate D)irector CiLAs. F. SIMMxONS ----- Assistant Director T. E. CORiLEY ---------Assistant Director E. L. MCCRAW ---------------- Editor R. E. STEVENSON ------ Associate Editor Roy ROBERISON ---------Assistant Editor Editorial Advisory Committee: 0. L. CI~IAMBiss, Associate Professor of Horti- culture; H. S. LARSEN, Associate Professor of Forestry; EARL L. WICCINS, Professor of Animal and Dairy Sciences, AND E. L. NMCGRAW. Auburn University is an equal opportunity employer. ON THE COVER. The results of an inten- sively manaoged pine stand is illustrated in this picture. See story on page 15. Cattle Fin isbedl on UWinter Pasture Rate High, in Carcass Quality D. L. HUFFMAN, Dept. of Animal and Dairy Sciences WALLACE GRIFFEY, Piedmont Substation A NXONE MRX ) SAX S paistui r fililihcd beef illst Ie of poor qulit ,tv is sinmply miisinfIormedl MeI at I fot cattlc filiisi cd oil highi (]ilIits wxinter grazin g cai h e Cij Ual tii ti at f i )ifl ('0l - p~iaable cattle gettiiig at 91-day feedlot finishiiiig per iod after grauini g. Foir this result, Ihowsexver, grin g aiili nals imost I cieadequLate nutrients for maiiiteiiaiice, gross th. alld( fat- tellilil High quality of forageiislied beef xxas estab~lishedl in a recen tly completed study at Auburn Unix ersitv Agricultural Experiment Station. Such factors as teniderness, juiciniess, and flav or as determined bsv a seinsory paiiel xwere coiisidered atlong xx ith mechanuical ratings of tenderness i chemical aiialx sis of mioistuiie and tat content. These findings. coupled wxith tiraditionIal measuries of d ressOig percen tage, q~uality and yield grades. marbling score, backlat thickness, ribex e area, and1( color of fit, proxvide at meainigful measure of pastuii cfed beef quLahhtv Comparisons xx ere muade betxveeii carcasses of' txvo gioiips of crossb~redl cattle finished at the Piedmnou t Subs.t ation, Campll ill. The forage group \xas finiislied to market xxeight onl re i xegl ass-Yuchi arrossleaf ('lox CI pastur es. The feedlot- C'OMPAISON OF CAId Ass TissiS isOF CATTLE IiNisilII (IN FonIA(n ANiD ON 1i~na-LNEBGY RAsiiONS Performance measure Number of animails We'ight it IlegillinL oft Live xweoight itt fili, IS] . Carc-ass xx cight. lb). tDressiiig percelitagce tUSDLA iquality grade lTSt) \ vield girade llliktft thickmess, in. tlibex'e area, sqt. in. Coluor oIf fat' Sensory panel scornes" TcibdeIless1.1 Ii iciiis's Via\ ori \tef-han1izh al ua1.tionn Result, by ratimi tulrag4e I i 'h-energy 23' 1I() 1,0)51 60:3 57.1) 1 1.(G(ood 4.,3 .40) t1.7 2.0) 6. 6 7.11 7.6 6 '33 11.52 632 610.1) 1 1.2(Goiot I 4.3 2.5 .3.5 11t9 I':) 6.2 6.14 7.6 AXrmoiir tciideroimetcr, lb). ot tore t1(.3 1 5.8 ,\ iuiiBatzIer shear, lb). lot fiurce - - -- 16.6 19.5 Moiistuire, pet.---- 7:3.1 72.2 ilat, pet. 133- 4.2_ Scale of 1-10): 1 is dexvoid iuf muarllinL, 10 has abiidaint inal - 2Scale iof 1-3: t is x\ bite, :3 is, xellllx. Sealtl o f 1 -9: 1 is leaist dtesi rable, 9 is most deosiraible. I I igbi [ sciuirc is tuuiigtici full il-l imailils 55 ii' L (1511 oilt ol thu sainid padstiiies aiid thiengi cit a t-das peio of fe Iuedlot filnisli i ()It a coiix cli- iolial high iel gx fiuiisliiti i mtioui. All cattle xx(i'slangfliter('( at about 1.0.50)1l). Agre of catt- tle at finijsliiii x\\as about the sanule fol both gioiips. although i atc' of gaolnax era ged sl i ghtly ligI icr for tI ose fin is bed oil rainl thanl for those shtuglitiicd directlx offl pasturie. The cattle xx c giradled( hv at Fcdci ii gi acer at slaugliter. Carcass exvaluationis xxeire madfe torni 01 aloleptic ciharacteiristics. Theire xx as a diilfereince il ii dessii( i percutage be(txween the txo I rup oifi~) cI attic; luoxx cx i thetre' xxcie ino dliffereiices ini ItSlJ \ ulalit "x girade, mnai hugt scmiv e. SDA s vicld grade, balcklIat tl i kuiss. ori ib lxe airCa. There IC wxas at more1 pro- iu Yiec xullowxxish cast to exterianl fat oh, caircasses fioin pas- tii i-fl islied (at tic, ats ii ated hx lhigheir scores recor~ud for cxtel hal fitl color. Twxo ril ste'aks fromn each calrcass xxeci evcxaluated fo~r telii- (i ri e s', jiiicii less an d flaxo I v it traiiieccl siN incller se iisorv pil l iiiig at 1 to 9 hedonlic scale ( 1 least desir able , 9 imost desiirable)I. Thle IMO iel rated steaks frin gi ain-fed catt'- sligrlitx loxs er foi- tenderiiess anud juiciiness than) those fi oil tll age-teil cattle'. Perhlaps the imoust coiitiroversial carcass trait irelated to feed- iilg iregime is fliaxor lof meat. lIn the study, the axverage steak flaxvor scoi-Cs fbx the sci soi x pan(' xsr cieuc tical betxxecnl the xxwo groups)5od cattle. 1111 s, fuiirigc fiiuis I ei beef tasted jnst ats good &; grail ifed 1bect. Teiideirness \xas exvaluat(ed xx ith tl' Airimiur tciiderulmieter liil 1cOkeil ni wxc inuiscle aii w( xith the Wai i ci-BIriatzLer shear ii itriiill it oil cooukedi ibeve sampnles. The WVarnier- Briatzlei iiistiumei t shioxxed foi age finished b~eef to he slightly imorie teiicer siince thc a ii wage score wxas lower foi cattle fin - islicd oil forage thaii those fiiiislid oit glaili. Hlowxever, these d t iffereinces xx crc oot stat ustucallx xieiiifjcaiit. TIhe hoxwer score iilicates less i esistai ce to shear fore. Xrniour teiiderorneter scoires xx eire iemirlx theu samne ( 16.3 and 15.8 l1).) for thle two gIroui 1 s. Exveii though sensoryli paiiel teiideri ess cdiffereiices xwere slight, this talste-test cxvaluationl coiifii mx the \Vai nei lratzler sicai exvaliuationis. B~othi tests iiidicated that steaks f ronm cattle iniied oii p)astuire xx\eie slightlx morec teiider thiani frin those fiius 1 hed oil at lii gli-cocci gxiati (li. Chiemical cx allitioli of' the rilleve muscle indicated that cattle finishecd ol piaxtuire Inn] shightlx' more moisture iii the tissue thai thiose led out onl graini. P5eicent fat iii the ibeve muscle xxias highler foi the grain-fed cattle. This fat difference x\,ias iict reflected ats at differeiice iii mai bling oft the i ibeve Ilinscle, hioxxvexr, siince axveirage ii ilblii g scores xxerc idciiti- cal for the txxoI grups. Besults of this stuidx in dicate thlat beef fromt cattle fliished onl 00) qi]it x ii witei gira/ilng is tjust ats accepTtalble ats that fri m ciomiiparable cattle fed ot on it traditioinia] fattening rationi for 90) (laxs. IW I I10 Pi, \\, \o \ hen. and where are questions that have confronted farmers since the inception of farming, but todav's farmers have a storehouse of research information to refer to in an- swering these questions. However, be- fore the founding of the Agricultural Ex- periment Station System, farmers had onlv one way of answering such prob- lems: trial and error. Though the Agricultural Experiment Station at Auburn was founded in 1883, it's roots go back to the passage of the Morrill Act in 1862. At the end of the Civil War, Alabama accepted a land- grant offer from the Federal Government and the Alabama Agricultural and Me- chanical College was established at Au- burn to replace the East Alabama Male College, which had been struggling to exist there since 1856. The first board of trustees for the col- lege sought to establish a system of ex- perimental farms in the State. A college farm of 16 acres was under cultivation bv 1874, and arrangements had been made to experiment with cotton and corn in the Tennessee Valley near Courtland. Other outlying experiments were added 3 years later in Wilcox County. By the early 1880's there was a clam- oring for agricultural research, but no funding was available. In 1883, a 226- acre experimental farm was established in Auburn. The farm was financed by a special fertilizer tax, which had been ap- proved by Alabama farmers. Further impetus for research came in 1887, when the Federal Hatch Act was passed. Be- search funds were almost tripled in Ala- bama with the beginning of federal-state cooperation in a nationwide research pro- gram on behalf of farmers. Though results of experiments by scien- tists at Auburn weren't widely distributed throughout the State, farmers began to utilize some of these research findings that filtered down to them. In 1886, farmers in the Black Belt or prairie cane- brake played an instrumental part in founding the Canebrake Experiment Sta- tion, whose scientists published some of the first research publications in Ala- bama. 4 (ooperatie tertilizcr experiments with farmers in different soil-type regions of the State were started in 1888. The Local Experiment Law, passed by the State Legislature in 1911, expanded field re- search expleriments, which were con- dlcted throughout the State in coopera- tion with farmers. In 1927, the Alabama Legislature pro- vided for the establishment of a substa- tion in each of the five major soil regions of the State and for experimental fields in the less extensive soil-type regions. By 1930 the Gulf Coast Substation at Fair- hope in Baldwin County, Black Belt Sub- station at Marion Junction in Dallas County, Sand Mountain Substation at Crossville in DeKalb County, Wiregrass Substation at Headland in Henry Coun- ty, and the Tennessee Valley Substation at Belle Mina in Limestone County were established. Experimental fields were started at Alexandria, Prattville, Tuske- gee, Monroeville, Brewton, Aliceville, and LaFavette (the first and latter two were discontinued). The legislatures of 1943 and 1947 pro- vided for the establishment of the Upper Coastal Plain Substation at Winfield in Fayette and Marion counties, North Ala- bama Horticulture Substation at Cullman in Cullmanl County, Piedmont Substation at Camp Hill in T'allapoosa County, Chil- FOINDING AND DEVELOPMENT of the A BERN EXPERIMENT STA TION ROY ROBERSON, Department of Research Information THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION SYSTEM IN ALABAMA E.V. SMITH RESEARCH CENTER APPROVED FIVE ADDITIONAL SUBSTATIONS ESTABLISHED FIVE SUBSTATIONS, SEVEN EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS ESTABLISHED ALABAMA LOCAL EXPERIMENT LAW PASSED FEDERAL HATCH ACT PASSED CANEBRAKE SUBSTATION ESTABLISHED FIRST EXPERIMENTAL FARM AT AUBURN ALABAMA A r M COLL MORRILL ACT PASSED EGE FOUNDED 1862 1872 1883 1886188:3 1887 1930 1943-47 1974 ton Area Hlorticulture Substation at Clan- ton in Chilton County, and the Lower Coastal Plain Substation at Camden in Wilcox County. The Ornamental Horti- culture Field Station at Spring Hill in Mobile County was officially established in 1951, though it was an outgrowth of the Spring Hill laboratory, which started in 1928. A seed stocks farm at Thorsby and a plant breeding unit at Tallassee are also parts of the system. In 1974, the Ala- bama Legislature approved funding for the renovation of Main Station facilities at Auburn and for the relocation of some Main Station facilities at the E. V. Smith Research Center to be located on a plot of 3,200 acres of recently purchased land near Milstead in Macon County. Agricultural research recommendations from early Experiment Station findings were slow to be accepted by farmers in Alabama, but in recent years an agricul- tural revolution has been in progress and has required the knowledge and research findings of trained scientists. From the Experiment Station System have come better varieties of plants and seeds; more effective and economical methods for producing food, feed, and fiber; more effective insect, disease, and weed con- trol; improved feeding, breeding, and polycultural techniques for more eco- nomical production of beef, pork, poul- try, and fish products; greater efficiency in machinery for the utilization of fossil fuels and human labor; and better man- agement techniques for wildlife, forestry, and recreation - to mention just a few. Today's Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion in Alabama, which is one of 50 in the United States, consists of a Main Sta- tion at Auburn, and soon to be estab- lished, the E. V. Smith Research Center, plus 21 outlving units. Calcitic or Dolomitic Lime? Soil Test Tells Which is Best FRED ADAMS, Department of Agronomy and Soils A LABAIA'S MAJOR Soil fertility 1)o01- lem today is low pH. Over half of all soil samplIes tested by Auburn Univer sity's Soil Tresting Laboratory duiring the past y'ear came from fields that neededl lime. The needi is especially acute for many farmers growing Corn, cotton, peanuts, andi soybeans. Over 2.5 million acres in Alabama were planted to Corn, cotton, peanuts, and soybeanus in 1975, andr ab~out 1.4 million of those acres needed lime. Meet- ing the lime needs of these four cash crops alone would have required more than 2 million tons, Table 1, yet only 1.4 million tons of lime were used in the State. Much of this was used on pastures, so it is obvious that many fields that needed lime did not get it. The present need for so much lime did not dievelop overnight. It has been b~uilding steadily with conutinued use of' high rates of nitrogen fertilizers. Practi- cally~ all nitrogen-containing fertilizers nowx used are highly effective in making soils more acid. The overriding purpose of liming is to neutiralize toxic levels of acidity by rais- ing soil pH. Other benefits are minor in comparison. Much has been written about hoxN fiming improves plaut-IUtrient av ail- ability , hut this relationship has little value in present-day farming except for the calcium and magnesium contained in lime. Calcium is a major component of all liiinig mi aterials. Mlagn esiumii is I a iijor' comlponlent of some liming materials. Lime containing moagnlesium is "dolo- mnitic," that containing little or no mag- nesium is "calcitic." Th'e two kindcs ar'e equally effective in raising soil pil. Since dolomitic lime contains 1)0th calcium amid magnesiumn, it is preferred on soils that are deficient in magnesium. N ot all soils are deficient inii a goes- hm,. of .course. [his fact is well clod o inted 1)5 results of Auburn University Agricultural Experim-ent Station field ex- perimnts (bone (hiring the past 45 years tidniymagmesiumo-deficient soils. Re- sisfrom six of these experiments, sum- inarized in Table 2, showx sovybeans and corn are less likely than cottii to stiffer from magnesium deficiency. Of the five experiments wxith cotton, three were on soils deficient in magnes- ium. This showed up in the slight yield advantage from using dolomitic lime (seed cotton yicld increases of 110 to 170 lb). per acre). One of five soils was mag- nesim-deficient for soybeans, but none was deficient for Corn. Data ill Table 2, along wxith results of many other exp)erimenits, established that magnesium deficiency is most likely to occur on sandly soils of the Coastal Plains a.nd] Sand 'Mountain areas. Cotton yields were often aff ected by magnesium de- ficiency on these soils; soybean yields were sornetimes affected, but Corn and peanut yields showved no serious effects in any experiment. According to Auburn Soil Testing Laboratory records, only 17% of all soil samples received last yea r wecre "low" in magnesium, although the percentage was slightly higher for corn andi peanuts, Table 1. The only way to know if a soil is "lowv" in magnesium and needs dolomitic lime is by a reliable soil test. Auburn's Lab- oratory has been testing all soil samples for axvailable magnesium since 1963. If' the soil needs lime and tests "low" iii available mnagnesium for cotton, the Lab- oratory recommends dolomitic lime for all crop~s. This recommeodation is based on the belief that a soil should not be allowedcc to remain "low" io magnesium. About one-third of the lime recom- mnendations from Auburn's Soil 'resting Laboratory last \c ar called for clolomitic lime. For all others, Calcitic and dcoomitic lines \\ouml( las' tweul equalk, good. Effect of soil acidity on crops is apparent in this July 18 photo made in a cotton field where the soil pH wos 4.8. TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF CROP YIELDS lFROM CALCITIC AND) DoLoMxuic Liu,,L STONES AT DIFFERENT LOCAT IONS Per icrc yield Kind of limestone Seed Corn ,Soy- cotton beans Lb. Bu. B u. Benudale sl' (pH 5.2), Brewton None 1,350 53 18.8 Calcitic 1,770 68 .31.1 Dolomitic' 1,831) 68 33.4 Increase for Mg'.. 140 NY 2.0 Hartsells sA (pH- 4.4), Crossville None Calcitic- Dolomitic ---- Incre'ase for Mg 1,2 10 2,270 2,440 170 1.uceclale sl (PHl 5.1), Monroeville None 1,240 54 Calcitic 1,720 63 Dolomitic 1,830 62 Incr(ea'se for Mg 110 NS None __1,930) Calcitic 2,010 Dolomitic 2,031) Increase for MIg --- NS Malbis sI (pH 4.7), Fairhope None- Calcitic Dol omitic---- Increase( for Mg 49 29.2 73 44.9 74 45.6 NKS NKS TABLE 1. EslriNIATED LiurE AEEDS OF \1~O 5)0 oXs CHOP'S IN ALABAMIA. 1975 Estimated Percent needhing acreage lm Acres Pct. 700.00)0 63 ---- :355.01)0 48 ------ 204.)000 55 ----- 1,:300,000) 5;3 2,559.0))) 00 __ Percent needing ldoloroite Pct. 31 17 2.3 16 Av erage lime' rate per acre Tons 1 2 1' Total lime needl Tons 660,00 355,000lot 112j)(9) .1,0:33,000t 2,1601)0( Decatur el (pH 4.8). Belle Mina None-- -c--- 1.250 Calcitic 2.550-.- D~olomitic 2,561)--- Inc'rease for Mg N SI -Sandy loam; scd sandy clay loam; cI clav loam. 2 g 'NS equal. magncsium in dolomitic lime. calcitic and dlolomitic limes wcre Crop Corn)---- Cotton --- Peanuits Soy beans TOT AL "T .HL lCt , XXI TIt) of1 lills.1 thitt ilX bleen surfacee mille 1 is onte of' the mlost eolitroX ersial isstues iii Ailihiuit todiiaX Most of this colitrox (I ' secilix to ccitter ilr010i(d the question of \\ het(41 \c e Oct a 101 I call he estaiblishe ol' il mine iliit a (1 Ill tile 01)110011 of tile auithlors, Xvgetal Olliled areas inl tihe State. Sil fLit) iiolocx- i 15 laliX I exegetate 11.1) rati ix,xe i a per'iiod (If XCeiX, butt tifteli till X egetatili il~s nio artificiaiiy estaldisi someII desired s egeta- ttiili Soon17 after tile mining opeiratlionis1 etornp]Cted. lii sioe etses' large amontst of lime wxill he reqired to (1(11iitti let xtiil itJ- ditx'. HoweIveX r, ill th er eases thei soil illittli i is i calls att at p 1 1 lexvel fair lbe conlsideredi iltolg \x itli Stil acuiditx \ianx m~il~elle i' ieis ta ex(exsiX ci steep sloipes. These sioipes a~re hiairt to littl0e, feitilize, plilt, aid iiarv est. Steel) sltopes allso iliitix rai(1 xx .tei to 0105( c at situ at raiard ~litil tha it est inotil p sll aeh CIhSC sttI~iti s ilx trioltteue I. TheiX ird probliiem ste.isoeo iiia iliol t e o Stililoe ill esill tiifaet tiik-a(I foest ii)iitt s.e litsill \ ig.111( xxilidlifet Ili the past 2 Yeairs, reseo (I at Atilhin Unix cisitx' Agicutlturall F 'speri- ill I, Viraiitia ipine, Slaish P ille c. VamoretI, Midiu llriti p~opilars xxiwill rv itt an roxx XX eli sothi) trted11 ox itk, it I rxd otk iintl x 'iiilxx Ililillr ditd x\\eli olsiliht o ll as aiit iIoitk xxl l] ii ~I ll plo ill hixll tioll buit te lpioes didt oot. Pasltur iii 11,1t tihat iplli to ibl III ill- top gi ass. Figure 2. All of lies re((fild Some5011 lindwl6T and terti \loix of the iied aieas wxould stoii to ildliit hlarves't gr4] 55C5 life loo and11 i -oi ((i rt. I Ilx o\\xiv plan tx x(ts \\e 1 "r l e {\t siXc fi 55 It S S FIG. 1. Two-year-old Sycamorec not limed or fertilized. FIG. 2. Two-year-old co'mm'on bermudla that was limed and fertilized the first year only. id red- If possible. the xii face in e oxwnier e pllshould begiii his rediioatioii (ffort1) lix belt too This is pirobaly~ thel 1most ti lt-lia operia- i15 (4ra/t- Shld he i 'g ltiaeti liiltl ac it \\t\ that the speed of raitoall nio ff is miiiiiini/ed lie used xx itiioiit creatiiig pools aind wxet spoits. xx ttei flerclittito into1111 the stoi1 profiile wxith illillilm soi1 (1(15100. prlogram XX Iew pilln ii ts 1 1 -\eaIIr-old iseed- lii (04. HoIlwever, otilli 'A k oi ll Alaboa iotlitatts that tilt' dlitpest metiod~ of es- t It lisiig pille standsl xxoiiiti ie dii cet s.ucding. Thijs ix alsoi probaiilv tre toir Mwie til the iiardwxxoods, bilt little re- Successful estalishmient of grasses aiid Ic giinic s oil surf ace lmlies Irequ iries the saime t iiial treaitmen'its 115 o)11 dOX Soil. riomiTe aiidit' most lbe adijustedl to 'Suit tue xx \ lid- p11111 to be Seedied ini the proper ealt egirx i i ill iits (of iiitriogei. pliosplollos. aiid H lv, of I ime and fertilizer to he iistd cll lie detei mined i)X xeidiiig soil salets to tile Soil Testing Laboi ltorv at Aiiloirii lilivel sitx. Aul iime mid1( fertiizei shiiilld ibe disked 1)1 ipiowxedi toi it dpti( of 8 to 12 iii. A firm, but1 ioot eo iat s't'dlioA is needed for Lyerit iltt ioli ht etsvI lot p('Oetititin. It is ix)) atiliitalg~is to \fill)\, Siirface mnles iiaxe souils that crust (IIovil fIX till' sii inltliaxi. Se eding ates fiol grlitsl'x iid legilinits Sihoult ile ibtoit 50t, tgreatt'i till fo~r orinr ii a I11 Prestlit iestairii itsiilts silo\\X tihat Siii,- fate loes cano he i cx getaittd. Thii ilist step) foi Alahoiia is to) see that) thex i re cegertiteti lt- the future benlefit (If the hat was Sitt( ltod1 N atiiuii. FIG. 3. Autumn olive flowrmnq the sec- ond year after planting. Coal Surface Mine Reclamation In Alabama E. S. LYLE, JR., Department of Forestry E. M. EVANS, Department of Agronomy and Soils Soybeans command a uniquc demand on the world market. s\ear and dowsn the iiext. Whiile mnost pe'ople realize that something called "de- ill a (i i I 5oi isible for thIiis, they may tot re(a lize the com plexity of this clem an ci ill (lit' caste (f sos lais. Sos liais and thieiri did 1 )iodilcts are iised in at w5ide range of food, feed, and inimitiiactiiiedc itemns. lThoughI linali such uses5 exist, sos i vean ls('age inay be de- lillitai'i into threce inaili icas: so xbeans ats ss 11011 heani pirodticts, ,oanx l'i eai pr odclcts, aiidt 505 wai i oil proihic's. The Last two comimoitit's has c ittii. hs far., (t'e most responsile' for- the phetniomenial grossrt Il of commercial dind for i so \11 5- hiis. Wh'lole beanl products alre rela- tiseI- ls inimportalit. Oeciicl for sov1)eall oil and mecal is dein'11 ied b\ clissimila* arkeit-]t forces. inakinig demnand anals sis for- the txx ts ),, of prodcits c'0m 1 licatetl. 'The oil is uisedl iniaiik us or- iargaiii. S e getabli' slilot t i ing. 19 sallad oils, and solni incitis trial piodclts. Its clemnani is determnined mnailils ctutsicie of agnicnltni e. Meal is ised for feed inig lhxest ock po't ito lai- 1pitt-r and its demnaliti theirefore, i :s dei is cfr ont the delemiid fllt liv estock. ''lii' oxveraill dernaiii for siivltianls has ex- pande p l'llriniaran I asait restl t of' incrceased dt'naiic both domestic and hoicio for- these (xsit end pr'tductts. Sitsbcanl oil and ilocal t'oiipt'te ss thl mi Ix subhstituite pi odtcts, ii cloiig cot- tt 54'('( oil.,L ld eile t ill oss tot ton - seed loical, taiikage, Ii\ iss s) ' i\ li-prod- liki' sit ledans. ite iiot pirt't'tllai I responi- sixve t itil ori itioil prid('S, ats lutist arc t sitoil prjnodluc'ts of Stl( plilt proidulct. AXii exteption is fish inca 1 froni thet anlits catch toff Per]i. Sits lteilis then, i.tre geiierallx thei residiial siippliei, aiidc derive ain ma gified etffct f tom the rise' or fall iii consumlptioni tif pi'odclcts prioduct'd fiont sos l.lis anid Sudbstitute prodtuci lts. Teintcrc'asc' ill xx ill'(lssd of' liliiinl li soislal oiil itld i'al silici' \\ in 1 ui \\ ai It lhis r'esutdc iot(I i ii econi iit prgressa of cideelped aid devselopinig ii ('ilx ilf the ss irldl. As pt'oplt' ss ithin those' ciounitrites acdaptedl ti thir ness- fiounld aflthieiice, dii'ts c'lioiogccl. A sob- stanltial part of this chat c'e ii i ilse ic t shift fromt it lrinl)ius ceci llaisech ilitikt' to a (diet ss lich iiic'licl'i moiire' eat. Gainus inl coiixuiiiption iof potiltrx aiic pill i1I'S1) luic'ts mao ii p11 a lal ge pill- tion tif this ineat conisumiptioni increase. 5 ~s V ~1 ~; it" ) 4" '4', ''4 ~ '54 S 4' '4~ '4 ~ ~ 54 S's 4 54 The Unique DEMAND SITUATION For SOYBEANS J. L. STALINGS and W.J TAL Il Department of AgrituEc onmc n Rural Sociology 'T'e last lesw sears has ce scenl sti ikiiigf adsl ajices ii (t'e tecluiolilgx loi (,il\ it siiiui of gi aiiis allot proteili (.e'ds ti iio'. sits ban mecil. Sits iean i mtal ciiixiitt 1 tiont has e'xpandcetd frt mab~out 5.5 inillitoi tins ini 195:3 to aiihout I12.6 mtilliton tonls iii 1974 aid, lVS. sos heaiioncail e'xpiorts litise grross u friont 272,000(( tons ilt 1952 Pairallilitng th exp i\ 1 anionut ill siis I nii'al iiscagt' hits bee ic i sitelagd\ ss(h ill lsciage oif sitsbt'aii oil. '1tal fll lot- lits Iistit frott 1.5.5 Ill. pe' t'.piti il 1 95 1 inci i'asi' ssits dole pinlifs toi i list' ill thei t'iiistiiptin itf c'itiisinii't fittids 1)1i'lai'd ittitsitle the hoiii. lDiiu ig this per ilod tif risinig fatt conls: 'iptill. (t'e chligi'c. H1amd c at ist' tlt'tlimit'd as picit( relationship's aint tlietaim s otiisiiiatiis c'taill Loits. IDiling this siiia' pitlil., fits iiid tills Itr indtuiistrIial ptodlitts I l~it ic titi ss;is 22.2 lb). iii 19.54 intl 21.9 11). ill 197-1 fll'. al is cid .i 1 itts atl ci ms list' (11ho 67.7 1l). iii 19.51 anid T7.5 lb). in 1974. Thes, lil i iid ii it jt i(''(Ott t'e sos heami indtsrY since sovhc'ais ar(' the major oilse'ed cr op iii the w~ sorldl. Sos-\ bean ol 1.1i'hcitlx atetim ts foi' aiboiut 60 ( oif the ttal U.S. fititi falts atid il otitput. As at tesilt, Ill t',ctiti colisir1101- lit, per s eil inl 1951 to its fpresen( t' le l (If '3:3.6 lb. fpit stt. (.1(11 'ttlx *v sos- di'ti olil fias eme'gi'd ats thei lealriiig( s egetalble nestit' foill fi ciii isliuiptioi, ss lili' ill I197:3 it comiprisi'i 574, tof a :3.5% large lIn all, doti n's a' sos li'iti Ilst' inctri'ased lroon 2.51) iillilai ho. inl 19.5:3 to 1.1 Itt]- lion hu. iii (9731. \\ lit Ii soits m ex~potts iitcreasel frt W ) ill in lii. iii 1953 tio 479 millionii b. ittI fl ('Iii' latter fit(tiv hillitit . Ai titflil' facto ill inci phil tilm- It anc\ssitk fiot \\o(tlt til \\t s ]not-.(,i lis lct .111 Iming (Ia la hst 25 sears (thmi at iluu\ iother' peiod' ill thei ss\orl'l histoiv I 1is 55 orhi tr ili' fitc ho pliablx hoildis the' kt' tio (Ia sits ',im iiiistix s futuire sieltituis ate cii coilsk t'itlsiltg Tlche] Seeding and Nitrogen Rates Provide Cost Savings with Winter Annual Pastures C. S. HOVELAND and R. F. McCORMICK, JR. Deportment of Agronomy and Soils ~HEIE IS GOOD NEWS5 for Alabaina cattlemnit xwho rely on rye-r-vegrass-Yuchi arroxvleaf clove'r grazitng. Nexv tesearchi has foutnd a xvav to cttt prod(uction costs wvithiout sacrificirng anv of the desirable features of this xx itter piasture mixture. Reduced seeding rate of ryegrass and ('lover atid use of low rates of nitrogen are the cost cutting measures coiminlg out of the Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station studxy. This permits cutting back otn the high estahlishment cost of this long season, dependlable, high quality pasture that puts fast groxvth oni grazing cattle. Results of a 8-year experiment onl Cahtaha fine sandy loam act the Plant Breeding Unit, Tallassee, shoxv that lower rye- gi'ass and clover seeding rates than generally used have iio effect ott forage production. Also, xvith a good stanrd of arrowy- leaf clover, nitrogen rate can be substantially reduced from current use rates. Wrens Abruzzi rye was seeded on summer-falloxed land in 12-in, roxvs at 40 lb. per acre during late September each year. Gulf ryegrass at 1(1 or 2( 11b. atnd utchi arraxxleaf clover at 5 or 1(1 lb. per acte wvere broadcast anid rolled itito soil alrcadx" seeded to rx e. Nitr ogetn xvas applied at rates of 200, 100(, atnd 5011b. per actre, h all iii autuni t at 1 tI e rem ai cer in mnid-winter, [orage xvas hat'vested miottlly from Novenmber until May or June. Encouraging Results Total yields xwerc similar, oxver :3 tiltns drx' forage per acre, regardlless of see'ding rates or tnitrogeti rate, see'table. Sea- sonal distribution of forage wxas tiot affected by seeditig rate of rvcgrass or arroissleaf c'lover. Effect of itrogent rate varied b~etwxeen seasons. There was no effect ott "ebruarv to tnid-April producetiotn, liut lowering N rate cauise(] at slight reduictiotn itt Nox ember- fatutar - pro- ductioni - appt oximatelx 10%~ whlen N xvas reduiced fr'onm 2100 to 101(1)I. per acre atnd anothier 10'; Nx heti loxwered to .5( 11b. Thlus, going from 50(11). to 10( 1) lb Nfurntishied abiout 2710 lb). of dry forage atid additng atother 101(1). ( total of 2(0(111). N per acre) boosted p~rodutctiotn antht er 24( 11b. duirin g Novein- ber-januarv. OJit the other hiand, (lie, higher rates of' N gen- erally resulted in lower forage yields ftot tniid-April through Mlax. 'lThis xvas a resutlt of clov er groxvth bleitng reduiced by usitg mtore thani 5011b. N per acre. Altough additionial N fertilizer beyotnd 5( 11b. per acre itn'reased firire s'ielcls duiii t the first part of the grazitng seasotn, tI e additi otnal v jeld did i ot t ax for tten N. Assumitiing drx forage is xworth $1111 pertloo ($0.05 per' lb.) atnd N fer- tilizer costs $0.30 per lb., ther e \\ as a loss oIf $1.51) wshlen the N rate xvas ittcreatsed fto 5tt t bo 101(1). N Affects Clover Stand Bot anical cornposition of tIit(, fo(rage xxas util apprecial x affected by seeding r'ates, but higher rate of N decreased (lie percentage of1 cloxver dut'ing MIarchi, April, and Ma, .see graph. Clover provided little forage from Nox 'mber to Jan- tNr in the clipped plots. Under intense gr azing, however, clover has been observ ed to provide a higher percentage of autuniti forage thani -xvas noted in this experiment. Rye furn- isiten most of the forage in November, but during December and Jauryregrass made tip 30-50% of the total. live pr oxvided io( forage dluring April and NIv Results r eportedl showx that pasture pr oduictionii can be sat- isfactoryv fr om seeditig rates of 10 lb. rvegrass anid 5 lb) .ar- rowl eal ('loxver wxithi 40 lb). per acre t'ye, and fertilized with 50 lb. N. Successful results wxith these lower seedinig and nitrogen rates dlepenid ott good seedbed pr eparationi and use of adequate miiiera I fertil izers at( inic.r T''he most im por- tau t factor iii success of tI is pr ogram is goo 101 i cbi arrowv- l eaf clover est ablislin tt andi root nodii hit n . P1latntitng scari- fied cloxver seed that aite xx'ell inoiicu lated should result it) xvigor ous legume plats that xx ill proxvide free nitrogen for the pahsturte. 1';tFFECF 01, SiEEItNG. BITi AM) Nit1110GEtN cIiitiI,tzt~al ON FORAGE, :3iLi, -YEA Ai-i EHiAGE Seed jug rate atdul - N tate, Ill/acre \ 20 rx egrass- 10 dloser 2_00 N 100 \ 5(0 N 20 rs egtcss-5 clover 2_00 \ 100 N 50) N 10 ry egrass-10I clover 200 N 100 N 5(1N 10 ryegrass-5 clover 200 N 100 N 50 N--, Sason~al yieldl of (Ir) for,e per acre Total Lb. 2,090) 1,890) 1,570 1,820 1.1500 2,390 2,180 2,170 2,290 2,230) 2,110 2,040 2,360 1.810 2,3.50 1.590 2,11(0 2,0W0 1185(0 1,620) 2,300( 2,10 2,390) 2,400 6,880) 2,900) 6,97(1 2,720 6,460 2,070) (6.450 2,330 6,380) 2,750 6,360 2,50 2,650 2.95)) 2,180 2,490) 2,820 (6,650) 6i,4180 6,750 6,831 Pct. clover in dry forage N RATE/ACRE A - 200 lb. B z(00 lb Co 50 lb 14U 30- 20- P 10orio o-floverin for gingdfeetrt o ABC ABC ABC A BC ABC AB Nov. 26 Jan B Feb. I Mar.?7 Apr. 3 May 14 N. Seeding rote was 40 lb. rye, 10 lb. ryograss, and 5 lb. Yuchi arrowleaf clover seed per acre. Fe 1). - I i of -A 1) r. - 1 id-Apr. May ib. Lb. Lb. B. F. HAJEK, Department of A ronoL my and Soils B. F. HAJEK, Department of Agronomy and Soils A li-MSED soi]. MAP of Alabama that presents up-to-date information has been published. It incorporates latest infor- mation from a recently completed general studv of the State's soils by Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station and USDA Soil Conservation Service. The revision was needed because of (1) development of a new soil taxonomy system that differs from the 1938 sys- tem used as the basis for the previous map issued in 1953; and (2) increased knosvledge of soil characteristics that sig- nificantly affect use and management of soils, which resulted in many soils being renamed and new series established. The new soil map is included as a part of Agronomy and Soils Departmental Series No. 24, which will be released by the Agricultural Experiment Station in late 1975. The map and report are intended for educational purposes and broad general planning, such as for rural and community develop- ment, recreational areas, watersheds, and wildlife manage- ment. Detailed soil maps and reports of individual counties, which are in large scale, should be consulted for specific pur- poses like farm planning, land appraisal, land acquisition, and housing development. Soil map of Alabama showing soil provinces. Soil bodies delineated on the map are generally large areas representing a group of soils that are common to whole com- munities. Each enclosed delineation represents an area con- taining one or more major soil series (used to name the de- lineation) and one or more minor soil series that are not indi- cated by the name of the area. The soils usually have a distinctive pattern and form a characteristic landscape. Thus, the delineations are called soil associations. The 55 soil associations shown as units on the map and described in the report are grouped into the following 7 soil provinces: 1. Soils of the Limestone Valleys and Uplands. This province is the most intensively cultivated area in the State. Most of these soils were formed in material weathered from limestone. Topography is gently rolling to steep. The steeper slopes are generally wooded. 2. Soils of the Appalachian Plateau. This soil province is the most lmountainlous in Alabama. The landscape is folded valleys and ridges, with both conifers and hardwoods on the slopes and narrow ridges. :3. Soils of the Piedmont Plateau. Soils of this province make up an area of Alabam a that was once extensively culti- vated but which is no\\ mostly in woodland. Topography is generally rolling to hilly, becoming mountainous toward the north. These soils formned in the oldest surface rock in Ala- bamna. 4. Soils of the Prairies. This is the area that is widely known as the "Black Belt" of Alabama. The name comes from the "blackish" surface soil colors of imanv of tile soils. The topographI of these associations is generally rolling, with some steep slopes and many nearly level areas. Large areas of these soils have neutral and calcareous subsoils and some soils have calcareous surface lavers. Clavey soils with high shrink-swell properties are common. 5. Soils of the Coastal Plains. The largest soil province in the State, this area is part of the Coastal Plain belt that ex- tends unbroken from Virginia to Texas. Alabama's Coastal Plains are generally rolling to hills woodlands that are domi- nated by pine forest. flo\\ever, there are large areas of open land used for cultivated crops and pasture. Deep soils with sandy surface layers are commnon. Soils with clayey subsoils are common oni side slopes in dissected areas. 6. Soils of the Major Flood Plains and Terraces. This soil province represents only the Flood Plain and Stream Terrace areas that are wide enough to be shown at the scale used in the "General Soil Map." 7. Soils of the Coastal Marshes. This province is made up of the nearly level and level bottomlands and flats along the Mobile River. Mobile Bay, and Gulf of Mexico. The important soil series in each soil association are de- scribed in the report. Each is described in terms of its depth, drainage class, landscape position, and slope range. This is followed by a brief generalized description of a soil profile that best represents the series. Bedrock that underlies the representative soil profile is listed if it is no more than 40 inches from the surface. Additional information about in- dividual soil series and interpretations for some selected uses of soils also are given in the report. The RURAL ALABAMA FEMALE HEAD And Her HOUSEHOLD C. L. VANLANDINGHAM and W. E. HARDY, JR. Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology RECENTLY, concern has been expressed over the situation of female household heads, especially those who have de- pendent children. These in particular are most likely to be in need of and receive some form of public welfare. For example, according to the 19.70 Census, families with male heads in Alabama had a median income of $7,828 compared with $3,303 for those with female heads. Thus, a look into the situation of the female heads and their households in the open-coun- try areas of Alabama may shed some light on problems and potentials for de- velopment. Data are from Southern Regional Proj- ect S-79 entitled "Rural Development and the Quality of Life in the Rural South," which involved eight Southern States and Puerto Rico. Only the Ala- bama portion of the sample, located in open-country areas of Clarke, Monroe, Fayette, and Tallapoosa counties, was utilized. Selected individual and house- hold characteristics are shown for the total and the female household heads. Of 420 households in the sample, 75 (18%) were headed by a female, which was about equal to the 17% in the 1970 total rural Alabama population. The typ- ical female household head was an aged widow who was retired and either parti- ally or totally disabled. The table shows 67% of the female heads were widowed, 65% were 60 years of age or older, and 72% were retired and either partially or totally disabled. The respective percent- ages for the total sample were 15, 36, and 39. In addition, 33% of the female heads were black compared with 17% of the total and 36% had 10 or more years of schooling as compared with 47% of the total sample. Since age is highly related to such variables as marital status, educational attainment, and ability to work, it is a crucial variable in assessing potential for improvement in a person's status. Thus, from a development stand- point, potential for improvement is quite limited for these female heads as a whole; however, their situation is not as bleak as it first appeared. Of the 75 female heads, only 19 (25%) were in the labor force (workin or look- ing for work) compared with 272 (65%) of the total. The percentage distribution for occupations showed that the largest proportion (37%) of the female heads 10 were employed as domestics; however, they compared rather favorably in the manager, proprietor, professional, and technical category (16% of females; 17% of total), sales and clerical (16% vs. 7%), and operatives (16% vs. 22%). Household characteristics showed some positive signs as far as socio-economic status was concerned. Even though the annual household income of female heads was quite low (63% below $2,000 com- pared with 23% of total), income for many households was for one person only. Fifty-five percent of the female heads, compared to only 14% of the total, lived alone; thus, for many households, income per capita was not so deficient. On the other hand, 27% of the female headed households contained 3 or more persons and limited income placed them in a disadvantaged condition. These were the ones most likely to receive welfare assistance. Forty-four percent of the fe- male heads reported their major source of income as social security or pension- not surprising in view of their age. Only 27% reported salary or wages as the most important source, while 19% reported welfare as the major source. Thus, trans- fer payments were an important part of the economic well being of these female heads and for most, increasing these was the most likely means of economic bet- terment. Some on welfare income could possibly become more economically inde- pendent through a job or a better paying job. A subjective item to determine the re- spondents evaluation of his or her house- hold's current socio-economic status was utilized. This was accomplished by ask- ing the respondent to place himself or herself on a rung of a 10-rung ladder (rung 1 being lowest and rung 10 high- est). The results indicated that female heads tended to rate their households lower, although the differences were not great. Twenty-four percent of the female heads placed their households on rungs 1-4, compared with 13% of the total. Conversely, 38% of the female heads rated their households at the upper levels (rungs 7-10), compared with 49% of the total. The average score for female heads was 5.7 and for the total it was 6.5; gen- erally, female household heads were relatively positive in their asscssment of household' well being. These female heads of households in many respects were rather disadvantaged. To a large extent, this was highly cor- related with being aged. Thus, for most of these female heads, little directed change is possible. On the other hand, those able to work should be aided in getting more economically rewarding po- sitions. PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SELECTED INDIVIDUAL AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTER- ISTICS FOR THE TOTAL AND THE FEMALE HOUSEHOLD HEAD, OPEN COUNTRY AREAS, FOUR ALABAMA COUNTIES Characteristics INDIVIDUAL Marital status Married---- Never married ........ Separated or divorced_ Widowed Househ Female Pct. 0 15 18 67 Age Under 89 yr.- -- ........... 12 40-59 yr-. -- 23 60 +yr-- - -- ......... . 65 Ability to work Fully able - 28 Partial or total disability ..................... 25 R etired- -- ............... . 47 Race W hite -------------------- - 67 B la c k .............................. 3 3 Education 0-6 yr.36 7-9 yr. 28 10 + yr ... - - - 36 Occupation of heads in labor force Agriculture 0 Manager, proprietor, professional, technical --- - 16 Sales and clerical ...... 16 Crafts or foreman ......... 0 Operatives- -- - 16 Service- - - 0 D om estic ........................- 37 Labor- 5 Unemployed- -- - 10 HOUSEHOLD Annual household income $0-$1,999 63 $2,000-$4,999 ---------------. 24 $5,000-$7,999 -------------. 11 $8,000 and over ........... 2 Most important source of income Salary or wages .............- 27 Profit or fees - 3 Social security or pension ........ 44 Welfare -19 Other 7 Size of household 1 person - 55 2 persons -18 3 or more persons ..........- 27 old heads Total Pct. 75 5 5 15 30 34 36 61 14 25 83 17 27 26 47 6 17 7 28 22 2 2 15 1 23 25 24 28 62 6 26 4 2 14 33 53 Self placement on ladder 1-4 rungs ------------------------ 24 13 5-6 rungs 38 38 7-10 rungs 38 49 * Except for the occupation of heads in the labor force, percentages are based on 75 female heads and 420 total. The bases for occupational distribution are 19 for fe- male and 272 for total. C lSXAND) TiOWNS thrl)IglI()(t 1711C jectioliale odors in I their (i'lkilig \vat' i UilitCel St~it('x but hias beeni r'eportedt ill Egx pt, lHtix, Israel, Eiiglali, T] lie xx lit' iii scx (re cases rendter itii xx atei iipaiiitaiii.le i are rilot iiiteii deli'xuld xs ('irthix , illiixtx, \vo00(-hikC. p~tiito-hii caliiric ii i dxtieix fishx ", aid otiit'i . Tis liix 1))1 i is ot icieaxitia cilliCI i to iniiiit'iJ \ii tei h)oardsx aid xx atei treait- nieiit mlilio'ies. I Iiix cx r. this problem is o iistit xlicted( to those concerned' \ivl xitb piovxilhilg ,uitable drinking xx'at('i bult is also i'\ti'lilii to the tresixxatei fixsi in- dtrxt . iFi it\ lug i x\ atel a li~iog the Ohije'timi ahlet ido 111 ax absoirbi aind at'- t'iiiLitt' iii thir tmissux the hiemnical ageo~ lt ( s C respooii xl fori the odorII. The odlor 1)1 xistx ex Co after cooiking iid gixves tihe fixsi ani oitirxlable tilste. Sii ce the firsxt report T5 't'ars ago. iiili'rix us atitles havxe beeni publlishedt xx iitel to aI'tioiilIveetes ( filailiiitoix ty pe of bath'ia ) gri oxxillg ill the rexserxvoir xx atei or ilottolin mod. Aquatic aI'tiiomx - lice %ti xii cl(iljtiidillthl (ai ix- toiv xi .' Ii rie I . Aquiatic 1Itiuoillx ucteS Such.J it" S. oiloli'ifI'l .111(l S. irMox txxxs I ixa it 'xx iiliillic of the gil'ri a \ 'tria Midt .1ljicrotiiioix/liil , aie kno\lx i to pro-( AXp/litizolio unoll, ()cilhotmiCl, Sij1 1101 a. iluitx odors xxlieu l (lxxi)1 ill th l ilboita toii (lotiuxsierilel( priogress iii l',I chii iti x oIf ill~ liiitilhlitex of, actiiiolilx (( ,tis lua lit il uiiiihu ill thle pil.t S x \'lx. I ii FIG, 1, Culturu of an aquatic actunomycetc which produces gcosmin. llost illipol tault co(i itiblition I xxax Ilili(' by Dir. i dx ( Cri)C at i t gerx I'Iiiix ci sity, xxii) tiiicI'll\ chaiaterizedl t'e striituii f'1 tlie major Carth\ix ielliiiog substane p1111]iiCCd by witii ioiiix, ( te aind iiamied it geosmnin, 1'igiii i 2. (c,- ilxmii ix a clear iuitral oil tha~t hiax all extiremecly loxx iltor-thi eshlld co(ii ceii tratiiii (0t.2 i).p.il. ) and (hl iteri..tic eai tli x' lor at hii gh diiitio i s. (c. i ii has lxeieoofiriied ats the eai v-sxmelhiiig suibxtimuiti proucied bx umerousx acti n011 x Cetis anx bi I ilie-green iaIgae ii (tedl aboxve. ieiuthluoielhiu xtiixtauce is hliodu('i 1) * v i'xx\ Slic'i/limiijt s. peiesx aluul hasu betii iueiuit ifie i ax 2-ilethli boliwle). 'Tbis sliltxtoule hais lli ixioiit{'(l I,.ooi CH 3 CH 3 OHI Geosmin 2 -Methyl - Isoborneol FIG. 2. Chemical structures of two major odorous ccmpounds isolated from water. i l i\ (ii (' ilitoiii dl o %'ii ofi \\ I , 1 (1 ill Thli \etio'li di) iold( is flit cilliicred to beC at 5t'iioix ploiil is a it iikiiig xx atel' xJli tug iiod ja'i xiOtheri 2 4 xxt'('kx. lii th sllige betl I 9TI.ltxx cx . tc 'rlxa 0dors~i dcscibc teur~ illd \its \\1'txit ( lii u 5iioidx loi- ov tirit deae hcs odori aiitiode lliix k ap-a iifiil~ gciili to ];t(e sprio i(li f j iT xx hoteer \\hid odotri ii tila to iit h t a tie (oilt ftix lue '. itl aippears that actin oetes are tue prmn ci pal b11oogictal a geiits iresponib ile for the epiouion of tio iniio the odorx 1111 I cuirx Iiilx at cci taiii timies 4 the xwar. actiiiormxcetex caln be ixolatedl fromt the local reerxvoir andI~ itx tibuhtaie t'x hirough- mit tile cai .1101 iiuied tol produice both geosilill I i ll 2-illethx-isoboriieol xxiii g(Ixx I(ii oii ap)prop~riate mlediiiim iii the laborator . it {arthl is bein g cm(i liicted 1) x the itthis to) tlcterm ne xx Iat fattors (eheitial amulid \ enviromen tal ) t riggei ItChe I(11 it licil ofI geosm iii at 5 1 1('tifit' timts xo(f the x Cin odor 11 Ii ll the ]it\ xxxxater prior tio Ilixtil t'luide: ( I ) ii'io ig geosmini at thie'\xxia- geoxmii podioitill ait the xtuliiu'. Scvx cral tlueital tre'atmienits hlave been'i if)- pliedi xxit] i xaixiog tdegrees (ot suc~ess. the sci r to xt' 'Il x t )' iti xersa ix' atct'p- table il tliod ofi remvin lg gt'(liiil frointl xx aterl iii xscaIt Ia rgc eCilll to smitisix' tlIC iie'li oIi xxittei treatmen'lt piaiits. A111 llille xx modi ix bx (ililtiouieairthe" rcilixmtix{' o(rgioiixiiix i.e. piexeiitiiig algal looiimis or .itiliioix ete xporuilatiii. ( 'tr- ailgid iilooiiii xxitli soime succetss. A. bio- logitall ciiiitiil il('tiiil xx is smigl't( ( xx hiti it xx axs xii(xx ii that the geoiii odor~ t'iiti s1'uitti imgI add5_)ioo 11) ioftis strillx xx ili llh oa ' be (1111' eficiei't ill fi't't c 1'/ ili' x tt'ol lfor re'movax oiif otT- EARTHY, MUSTY ODORS IN DRINKING WATER J. D. WEETE and W. T. BLEVINS Deportmient of Botany and Microbiology COM POTNEN INS of \MIA I\K ETI F N G N I AKV I N For SEL1ICTEI) FARM~ FOOlDS MORRIS WHITE Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology HE iii ON('i EK-l s 1)ii LAHi 1 11'it 1Wi fuiel pas s for all sers ices i I volsed in P piodti c ii ig, P~roce(ssing all d istrihut ilng. L arge ill creases ili co sts ill most phai~ses5 of mairketinig -inicluiding hil r, packag jor factoirs ill XX idlelilg mlalkceting Ilial - grills andu risinig retail prices. A 1 973 stuidv XX as Ii adc b\ colmmiiodity Speccia lists a 11( retsearchers i i li the N atioln al Ecoii 1 c :\iial sis D~ivision iof tile Econ omlic Be- Se'archl Serv ice of (cost and pr ofit cioiipi n- thts oIf nmarginls fromi tile farm throuigh lhe retail market. Although substanitial incre'ases ill mlarke'tilng margins hiav e takeli pla(c sinlce 197:3, propor~ltionls spent1 for various~ componen 'I ts (If' the mar11gills hiave hot ('1ia igeif greatly. C harges for dliff eren t Imarketin g opeira- tiion s varied ss idelX among commodities, see table. Asseml anid plricuiremient comllpristed a relatisc -I vSmlall p10Jpiiitiiiii of the Iritail price- 2% oII less for all coilmmod((1it ies hIiclIuded excep~t Inilk, wh Ii ch \\ as T,". D ifferenices among Xai ous c(11- mod aities ill tilie amioun1 t of p~ro cessin ig re- qired are reflected ill the chfarges. Al- m)ost half the r etail plrice for frozci 1(11(u) friedl potaLtoets \\-as till pllocissin g. ilid onliX 4% or b0 eef. Ilitercit\ tI raliIpor tatill charges reflected iliffI - (is ill lx'rishlalilit\s b ulkii i(ss, aild sllippil I g (dis- tancesl'. C:osts fol' trailispoiii'Ii a0-1t) .bag of potatoe were XXcl' 1111parat iXelY grieater thiani that tfoi ml, swichi is lelis(' ili vohume dali has f1iiglieu ,aili per1 iiliit. of jobls. fpli'siou0l perX I Ii ored hy X irills IX I c5 of swho le sal ers. hiave i' eli take ii oviX bi \ p) 1 riicessorls id oi retailers. tran isporltat ion I 5X t efl 5 hase i' eel I illilpol 1.111t factors ill elim illation (If some ss ii le- sailers. Proi cessors (aIillpreplare an d sh i p de(sired( ifuialitities to a retaililig firm's ihit (155 rc hlilisi XXhere ini lidilial Ic- tail store vo lu m es of variou s plrioducts ale assembhlledl. hletailii i cillitillles to be' tile mlost ex- pnive mii larket ilng opleration for at ma- jillitX' of pr oducts. Thie situlatioin Xwithi siome 1produ11cts, lii isser i, is thfat ci - s lilier (demlandls forii more processin ig and inroe pacIX~l nk agin ig hiave resllted ill charges f'or these serv ices e'sceedil i the charge for' retailing. Fren ch fried fpot a- toes and Mlilk are exampl~es (If such plod- icts . Imholl rt all t factors colit ri lit illg to 55ide ret ailinig ma argi ns are wsages andii salai ics, risks of Illici' icianiges, costs uiec- i'ss:I1 to mlailitaili prIoduct (Illilits.\ and~ lpliss ical piroduIict deterilration.l \licatiin i of chlai gs amniilg 111rg~ill cilliolli'its is siilli('tilne(s dlifficuilt an1d rie- qires di' eta:iled accoun lt ing priciduI res. It is possible to dectermllinlit coin iien ts for Xwhlich tile coist is gretetist ii ii to ShiowX rel at ionishipIs i 'ofl omponeit'l co'lsts amonig ( fiuid produlcts. Labor is, by f'ar, the molist ('0511' colli Ji lleillt for i11ll rOli cts stili'(l excep' 1 t freinchi fried po(tatoles. Chlanges ill salaries :111( wXages fhaXve a greater eff ect onl thle Illarki'tiig 1mar0giln for sione pr'od- ticts tliaii fur ot hers. Similarly. marke'ting imarginiis iif :111 pi idtlts \\ ill 11 ot lbe Foold ;tcvin'lunit Bechoice, 1l). I otitou's, It1)i. bag (311 hld fricil. 9 iz. Farni Asselilllv X':ilc and procuire iIlnt Cenits 89.9 71.5 35.3 54.4 49.8 4.3 :3.2 to in flat10ion iii efforts to re'gain lost pur- chasing power, canl~ be expected to l)e reflected in wsider minketinig margins. Costs of' food conII tain ers and plackaglling m ateial s are si 1 stanltiall v higher Iiatt i in 1974. but prices hav e stablilized an dlit decline il b)oth April and \IaN of 1975. Fuel and electric rate increases also lev eledl (off, 1)111 recent de~velopmenits inl the elierg v situation couldl result inl an- other 10(111(1 of increases inl the n ear fu- ture. flccent trendrs ili(licate that tho transponrtationi system shlidn't lbe unider as Mnlt'f straji ilfl 1975 ats duriie, 1972~- 197-1. losses er. rates in e xpected to r1ie adll transpor01tationi will c'ontI ie to be a miiajor m arket ing cost. An oth er factor contribulltilng to thI e m(1ar- ketin11g minagill is the decline in (liut put per maln-hour inl food manulfacturing firms. Produictivits' data showed that ili 1 97:3 oultput iof food maufiacturlling firms declined thrlee times more than total houis worked, 11(1elebv pulshing unlit lablor cost higher. Ani examil at fol of m1arketin ig opera- tion s anld the( various componentII) s oif mar- Pro- Iiitcrcitv Wh Iole- ~ttiil (C'ssillg I ltransprt sillin Realn Cents Cents Cents Cents Cents 1.5 5.8 1.1 8.9 28..3 1.8 12.9 1.1 2.4 201.1 1.2 6.7 1.1 2.9 12.4 .9 8.1 1.2 2.8 1(0.7 22.1 12.6 :3.9 '34.1 8.15 1.0 1.0 2.4 2.5 11.6 ' 13.0) 5.1 tI'tail plrice Cents 135.5 10)9.8 59.6 78.1 122.5 17.2 65.4 111 fiuh'il ili farml val iii. Inluded lil IiXXhrili'sling. eqn:Illv affected by chanlges iii pa~ckagirig of, mar1 Il cis gioing fi'or~ t ome 11111101iits (e.g. lllsiliess taxes, iliterest) is relatiX'('IX p)ilii'lts result ill mlinoir chainges in totail miairketing malrginl. Unusi l k l af~rge incr'leases hiaX'e oc- ('1rrei'd ill operaiting e'xpenisi's of food mariiketinlg filrms sinc(e August f1973, see figiiie. Althiough price inicreaises :ire sliow- cea ~ses fol' labo', tl':iisjpiltaitiiiI , and pos- silv i'lergs Xwill keel) pressuire oil mar- ketinig millrgili 1s. h ici(':ses ill h(111'fX cai'inlgs (If food 11 locs the itp1ast yea (':11 b ~~e ~en grea:ter thll ill ilil \(ain for Ml icli 'omlparale~ iata are av'ailabile. Tf'hie paice of' wage ill- c'reases, attribulted~ to swoirke'l s reac(tioni ketilig mlarginis rev eals XwhyX fairml 11o- diiers oif Siomei commodllliities rcei've at greaite'r propoion iiI of the ir etaifl pice' thai do prodi~uc(ers of other 'omm~odlities. It does n ot indi Iica te thei~ rela:tive' prfilts ea~rned'( by p~rioducers oIf various far'm food of 967 F0 197!,A C 7o4ro o rosm~neee b r~elgim oseOr.ooeso riorn oddt0t0 fr0 050 of9foo IisTiBL1111. IN Mn 111 IL l.Iiui, I. X iii;i iii FW' Vi~ XIXE AND NI (OK I NG OPi' x Iox. 7 FIDXI FOODl Piiiii is.Vt'S., 1973 to delop ('i) pi giaIIs wxhichi xxiii deal atde- qulateiy wxith pi oblenix of ildltiti l ill tile [iliiteti States. 'I'lit Atti iiin U niveri xi l Agricutiu ral Expe'rimn t S tation is con du ct ing re- Wei ebh to try to identifN potentials for imodificatin of food choices. O)bjectivesx alre toirliat inig food choices wxith i untri- tionial I iealthi of pr'eadtole'scen't girl and 11i asxexsiiig the invliatt of ecol ioniiit lex ci anditi c baIxckgrunid Onf tie iiu1tritioiall health of these girls. Niitiritionali iilforinatioii is bciiig col- lctet iu 100 preadoleseni t giirIs ( 50 whiltes anit .50 blacks) from11 \aha1Ma for it :3 x ear longituldinal studx. Half of the suiljects aire fromt lowxiincoime families ($1I2')0 per caita per veir or- less) and liall front families of highier in come pe'~ r caplita per yeair oii- more) A~ 24-Iir (Iietai x recaillI is, tak en each x i'ai fr ont each panrticipanit utd intlake o)1 imajoir iiiirieiilx, xvitamns, auth( nlliiierals is t'iltillItl fiOTi fod C'Oip)OSitiiii tal- fl~es. Uiice a-x ear fbiiod aii1d orilie siiil- plt's ar1e collected and assaxeti for sex'- eral in1trieuts. Aoinma \xits at comiin p roiblem, pair- tici larlx' iii black grirls, Table 1. Although sen onil lex clx of, iriI Wier ie lowx ini appi iiii iiiltklxinefourth of die girls iii each ill- eonmie an id racial gro up, th e l exel of uii sat uiated iiioii binldinig capilcilv (LAB(: af I e t e iiidie.itOi_ Of' long -teri m ii l at~- tus, %\xits more f req uei tlx\ .bnmnah ill black girls. This suggests that iron de- ficieitcx' x\\as proba~bly rexptii iible for the i lennao. li irther su)piort of irn defie- ]ei Cx as the cal i se for thle a lemoia is thle i!Oroial xeri'ion lexvels of f ohit' aci d, Tab le' I. Lack iif folic acid, oniie iof the 13 x itot iiiii gi iiip, is the sei'oodi lairgeist cause (after( ii mi deficienicyv) of .MICieia inl N omrth Am(inerici i xxom ii. IDesjit lf iiroiall xcli i x'ai, thietarx intake of Ibis xvit- anan axem aged less thamn omie-thilud of the reICi10lille(l('tl anomt, su ggestixig that the a tiiften a for f ohate initake probatb> iieeds fui'thei iiixestigatiin. ThI e iii1titiil l status for' iiti'm xwater'- solule x itaillimis vairieth x itlx. V alues fo (ii (ix iirot'x I glutain ie-V- xi X' tram Is- aiiillase fX pytlooxil still a1l ionl imidex (EGPT Inidex ), at measore tif thle x'jtaii B,; sltatusi, wxemre abliri1(11 bo St gil Is, NUTRITIONAL STATUS of Ninc-Ycar-Old GIRLS In ALABAMA LINDA Q. LISANO, PATRICIA T. REISTER and CAROL 1. WASLIEN Department of Home Economics Research Tablle 1. 'T'his sug(gests either thaiti defi- ciencyv of flix x it~uimil is comliiimii or- dial citeriai est alished for adu lts do iiot ap- Iplx to tfls age. Urniam'y xcrel iii i of thliiiii ( xit~uilii B 1 ) andt riboiflaxviii (x itainii 13..), nl('asiireinei its xx Iichi liax ( ielecl Toio' lie i iioruuzllx cx aluif' iii chil- reni, xxer'e niimial for' all Uirs.lmiiiaiiy a~sclOri t a icI I if iinilo C ) exceri Iioil ag(_aiii i elif ixehx 1iiit'i111ll101i Ii'isiii - inlel in c'hildreii, seemled high foi all groupsl. 0iilx foris luasit x iftinlimi (fll onie gi oup, thelic lute iiint te inceome. appear Ii) Iiaixe Ibetter niutiional sltatux ble 2, werce simllar foir ll] groups. If(i\\'- exver, scliii ll ibnimlitsa sigiificantlx' loxxer ili bilack gills, al iougli incmieit ditd eiices. Thle xvairiation iii aluhiniitiiiiold niot be ielated to dietai x pi'oteinii a ioli- eated front thet 1 iec'diiig tiav's intalke. ats thle bliwk iooueic oltnre gi hllp giTiiops anld all1 grouiips t'tiiiliet ii'wi 1v txxice flh'e r''eciiommiende iiitakeI' f-i pro- tt'iii. Serinmo cholesterol ]('x,(,Is aippeared(' to ibe highe'r inl lack girls, xxhile Irigix ('(ride TAiii1'. 2. MEANo' VA~LUES' FORi Si iNxiIt i SAL P1tii I1 iN Xi I Ai' ND Lipiiox Wh ite loiw Blac k mnode'raite-- Blac~k hoxx TFotal pr iln'ii Albumini Li / 10)1 mill 00 H ill] 7.3 5.0) 7,3 4.8 7.2 44 7.14 thaii the mitliti tiiree. MIeani dietai x iii- takex iif all thiree x itamiins xxe'it adequatte. xxr cit i the' riw~ie usuialh fotind for Noirth A 1 mnericani cildren 'i. The nicam x xxnt (jilite simiilaii foir all groiupx, ailhoiniil giirIs ill tite blatck iioiiie'ate min~o' gi oiip had at sligii Iiiglici iiici'iice iif I xx\ x'aloes. 'flux intditcates that x ilinii A the- B ciec tv in ax' be at prioblem fo( r t I exe girls. Totall seruim prott'ii i ci ivxaluit', Ta- ((1 lo'seiol l11u" 100) fill 1-42 154 157 74 66 65 lexvels xxerie lxx ti Tale 2. 0oilx oiie gi had at ceteol ileI x i that xx o 1 ld b'' toll itlered I iioiall 1)11 iI elt'vated. Xlltlilopoie(trit' nlt'axstireleiitx showex''d that at gil illtir ii uim1bei (i 1f1 hak guis hiadi smnalit i skiiifolds andt xx tigli' Icitxx Ta- ble 3. Howxxexveria lamrge iiuinbei of Oix'i' xxetight gills xxl Axaso Iiiiiiir ill this gi niip. Girls frn t(he1 f l ad;ck Ii\ ixx nuoime gi o il shoxxed thet highecst iium)-r of' xmiuill skii folds and itx (i gilt for- heigilt lrlt ios, TABILE 3. INt xll OF PAso (iin'A\Is \%,xfill A13-.oi1Lx xiXxi IIIIiPI'_IiAI ALES Rate ainih iioomt' Wh'Iite 01113(1 ate Black llihliit Sk julold <7.) 11101 4 '11; 'WI S 51: ]to Ifliicliiitalile Volume. ihe costs of II a iitr11ict wsere satisfied comp jletely \itli uIticoniw frilln cluts njaiji ujidet the 11Ollt igencuit pr1ogra.11 Test Preparation Itiitelisi\ c ... mai,1dmt~itt5 \\as licgii ill 1967 aod11 19658 oil ts ti acts of' land at lie LosS i (a last al Plait Sti st atilii. The tracts 55 ie designiated Maniagedl Forest Unlits ( NIl IT~ anid -2), and each was mappftf ed aoi inventXCItoried l)X 5 [iii s that werCie siifhcielti l uifoil io bei liilitirl- (fiislialtc 11(111 the for est oni acljoiiing arias,11 Prcs ciptiot t re atmicits est alish edl ci i Iis i liial stands inidili ed selective hai xixiiiig. thiinniing, complete hlarvest, prescribIedI firec, anid clearci litii g ill strips for- the puripose5 of regeierAtioii by Ila- tiiral alld dlirect si-.idiiig. ResulIts Ill oil(, st aiid clesigi iated fori- rowing- ass titoicr as the m atii ci ip. all trees less thanii 9.6 ill. d.b.li. (diameter btreast high ) ssere ciit. All trees 9.6 in. cl.b.h. ori lairget sserie cot ini0 ICl ',taiil desig" ii ateil loii gYoi 05iig cordws (11( as t 1i it( maj01. illp. thei taltic sho0ws the sass timiter and ucss no:d s oliiiics ioliX toti- tedii \1121 1 Mtid NI It.2 biefotre the first iiiteisis e maiiagecttia cuts inl 1967 and I 96S. re- 5lpectisch and itc the aitotits 151cars after the ittitiail inailagecl cuit. Asc~w \iie5olulrnes on boithi traicts wXere 5,052 lii. ft. f)ILIS .5.2 cli s per acre befiore cu tt inig and 5l,191 Id. ft. pis (6.7 cords .5 seats later. These fi gureis r epreseniit a siuifstaniitial iii- circS tso iVXaloe oif the( tswoi tr acts, anld tlieii itipt itsed coiiditioii elisii s that fit- til C ilci cases shltid be tt ir t tid. Conclusions 'ilte coists fur- iiiteiisivei iiiaigcineiit its c the 5 s Ci pci iod sscrc $8158.23 for NI fT. aid olil]\ $43.96 for N\Ij' E T 2. Inl- cotnic ftii tlic hairvest swas SI .151.75 for NIEL 1 anid 8'2,20650 for NIUt.'2. Net cash itiioice of S.3,456 iii adijtioii to sol- ne inctrcisc of 21,1-3.3 hh1. ft. ptlus 226.3 cords dhii( , tile itiitial .5 scars of man- a~riter a I ;1 .7 aci e, receiitls cot-over forest ecostciicc thle pract ical its of in an- agein ot iii for ests like tfhe twso tr acts near (:toildci. IS VIIIL' s uisC-Cxertaili that 1maulsI p)ii i stands inl the Losse ci oastal Plains pin- TIBE isni0iNia ice of Alabamta 55 ll t espi ilas iii.iiu to maniagemencut. lii 19(67, a test ot this pricimise ssas he giun at tI e Losvct ( tuast a I Tract P~lainu Siihstatiiui near~ C :arrndc'. [Ilic lot- e'it had lteeii cut to) all 8-itt. stuiiiip cli ameter ill 1951, roio iipracticals\ all NHt o~f the IllerclilIitablei tillihcr andi sithu)sce \IF t. iqieuitls otfiog 1 )i itcctioii frit itui55ilclfi i. *5.iii Iall of thc olinl Thle des elopting foriest of mixecd lobilolly is incidiid. p-inie (Pinus facd (t) andi shin tletil p)iii ( 1'. Itentionaj~ul i lochr Fiisi 0i 1 AM) 5s Yi sis t.siiii Iiitial s olliii is Acs 13l. ft.- C o I NVoluimne 5 yearis if icr hars est B&d ft.- Coldsc 85.5 446,i28 1 5 18.65 518-,825 291.2 66.2 :320).095 267.3 268,618T 7 21.0 [ii wa s pith', iut the stialt 11 iiiniit iOt hothss atc thalt si is pit Senlt 111c ~A I .8 A Am rican Woodcock in Ala.ama KEITH CAUSEY, JOHN ROBOSKI, and GEORGE HORTON Department of Zoology-Entomology O NE OF THlE most prized game birds of the northern anld northeastern United States goes virtually unlinted in Ala- bama and those of us who hunt these secretive birds of our brushy bottom- lands are at a loss to explain why. The American woodcock is a medium sized bird offering excellent recreational opportunities to Alabama sportsmen who enjoy shooting over hunting dogs. This odd looking bird is present in most see- tions of Alabama from October to March in good numbers. Along the heavily veg- etated drainages of east-central Alabama it is not uncommon to flush 15 to 20 of these tricky flyers in a couple hours time. Woodcock nest in Alabama but such incidences are reported to be quite low. Wildlife researchers at the Auburn Uni- versity Agricultural Experiment Station have begun to investigate the nesting ac- tivities of woodcock in Alabama and the findings have been surprising. During the fall and winter of 1973-74, considerable effort was directed toward the study of courtship behavior and sub- sequent nesting and brood rearing activi- ties of the woodcock in and around L County, Alabama. Courtship display : gan as early as December 14, 1973, ai continued through the first of Marc 1974. Nest construction and egg hayil at the primary stud\ area began as eai as the first week of February. By Ap 1, 1974, more than 15 active nests brood groups were found and studied 4 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIC AUBURN UNIVERSITY AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830 R. Dennis Rouse, Director PUBLICATION-Highlights of Agricultural Research 9/75 10I Penalty for Private Use, $300 P i; rr;a POSTAGE PAID U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AGR 101 THIRD CLASS r875I 75 ENT . a study area smaller than 200 acres. Backdating hatching dates showed that 1) of the 15 clutches were completed be- tween February 4 and 12. All nests ob- ,cerved contained 4 eggs each. During the same time period in 1974 and 1975, three nests and 13 broods " ere located in Lee, Macon, and Choc- taw counties. Game management officials at the Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge in the Tennessee Valley reported two nests and one woodlcock brood during the last week of February, 1975. S Further investigations are in progress and the implication of the findings are important to the conservation and wise use of this renewable natural resource. At present, it appears that the woodcock is being hunted in Alabama during the first month of their nesting season. Sev- eral nests have been reported by local hunters who had killed or attempted to kill brooding females before they were aware the birds were nesting. Several nests and broods were located in areas subject to application of pre- scribed burning programs for enhance- ment of bobwhite quail habitat. Nests and young broods would ver y likely be harmed by these burning programs which are geared to the reproductive cycle of quail and other common ground nesting birds of Alabama. It is also possible that traditional burning schedules designed to benefit quail, deer, and turkey will need to be altered where landowners are in- terested in the welfare of woodcock and further research should determine if ee changes are needed in the woodcock he- hunting season dates. nd While wildlife researchers at Auburn h, are busy studying the biology of wood- ng cock in Alabama, wingshooters in the lv State are reminded that the woodcock ril is a fine sporting bird, excellent table or fare, and apparently quite abundant dur- on ing late fall and winter. N