VOL. 22, NO. 2/SUMMER 
1975
of agricultural research
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION/AUBURN 
UNIVERSITY
R. Dennis Rouse, Director 
Auburn, Alabama
i-if~~
gf~
4~
DIRECTOR'S COMMENTS
WXI IAi' IS THE \t X \ltl of tlt Agriculttural ixpeiitilit Stitioii til
hin ut it is xxiiitix of oor1 tI i yit t, epci~i ki il 1 975 ixs we elli-
(!elitili l i o (stoat ii till s,1til( ti plt ofit Wtl( ( (;T I
bea 10il 5 ao iit iiix t it itigititi. h
pittli lit tile ftee iltils f Arir xx ste
th11it is iiintelxt -Xilitiicii le ildl io
sntiitediii a T x atilitiofc lixlgiltl lI
pitii of inseac Nitill to hat ti R ENSfOS
o iIltr\) esetit \\iil i i Itie x ijj o iti icxiaiei siti at
icv~cIt mi t il isl lal tiii of .100 (itlllhx iitgig tt is
tils iXt thinkl tii oili illd itfis l~ii lgti Fi utr
ctioni atid itefetisiit i e artto eas tiltftregieaii
thit i~s thatue xxt ini iit itti h iat iot iiiaxiiii i xijili
slau ( illi~ i ii etiti iix tit.f l iil ei sol (Ithe illillit ltt
equalexd i) tulleis wxl hot lii is itl 
l lRi tENI ROUSechitgEt
tr i pr Tese t h il ilt iif i p ofta ti lili d siiti ( r1ea s aruc eaiiig(
ehilti> tiei ewlithtits prtic hul t elte( lx Ti li l it s till s litai
T hecic prblm otit imp i tlx ti n t ilti ollt f ilillillhial ( pt itl.
mo is urttt s thitnt ii jb is x fll t its at fo IT(iil l fituit. tltih
itlI iberiati is abefoire iil Us A ieat ilil eeflot uit iil ioltitis t b i -
tiplid isd IincitniiiiI is i \ ci a eft tev t o ,( fux i itue (titatiiti
tl fri w\~a tat e ofnheiitedit . i n tilto a iti I (3 etiit il ishl-
intxt reise a tet iiit t il is st 1 t m ofs rx t rxio stice lillte
nit iefpo orgillixi totlotionicltaxd hav trit xieleix effect
illittprolemsti th~ftal sit to II(Iit researh x01 iiieill ite eanutsfo
iii .\iahaiiiatxeere titititi xx itfi tue fiii~t itit iix ttiniotl sthe
sConisTsi let sottes oficsathe liil 3lIch ilei ti itss of teaie
shtietiti t tiiiel iie tiaiilitii t' o motrei a xeartii ~ ht s tStit ill'ats tol
til-( ee i a t itiicitIis xxei il lt to itleasttutul 
pfixationcti 1 a-
ptitx o iteplat fure 97tic initinti. iiut 197 t rtat cattie
Xfiie gi ass Stlhstatiil i x itiitilta ctis o f'iloicai plots t asi xil
t Ai ltimicrtaenti x iit i hiese ic la ro ti trex liiti th isiitite utg ia
igipoftanit iaiti li iii reii arihiit ibis oiexta d tii if lliiii the (riip
iftitle ihoiti eitii t 1-s i glc efotts. e \itift' h ign
gimictitl aue opilrit it e tIII theta ii] till 197:h33ii it iani dis-e
eit(x Wsiiiai fteilot th iIiiis stto bere ptiitiui itu lot iitil pea-
Tint tefotislirgaii oi oos.~eta a ee oc~~ei
I -
"4 eve ewe5~e4e ,. .
pontedi asociate (iircoi of tihe \g'riciill
(leali of tile Siliiiil of, A.\ijliltill
Dr. W ilson il s blorn ill
Esamiia (:ntvmdAuw
his falt still oelc
there. lHe eat( lit B.S
tlegie ill 
ii i l ina 
siu
(l\ix o( diat] 
M.S. il.o~~iA
lirililig frloint Ali)"111
After eat 11111 t I'l
fr~ot Moklhon- State Unktisi ei htSle5 itx
accte itits at post doctoi al schliti att
the Natinial Academyv of Scienices. Wh'lile
alt A\ilirtl. D~r. X'ilsol xx as ait ~liti if
Galnit Sigttia Declta aid Sigitlit Xi hlo-
titi is, thle g (:fllb. aiid thle \g ('11o1-
cii. IHe is allso listeti ill Whoii's XWhl iii
thle \lilxest. Amoericaii Mein ill Sciene.
andh tile lictioliiV of lInternatioinal lBi
ogr aphix.
Foillowinlg h is txxvo 0-year 
1
)ost dIoctoral
stin lit s I-. WVilso b(1 egan ia 1 2-year 
ca-
reer \\ itl i t( L'.S. D)epartmnit of' Agri-
tcultuttes Agictiiiil i eseii el Serv ice.
He set~e vets Coonrd iniator of thle Notrth
Car oliia Htg(iiiiial Pliltrv Hi oiler Lahb,
theiets Nitiiiii Leadet tot Pniltt xGe-
nietics. I 1967, lie \\-ias prtllhiotcth tot 
Di-
rector of the I'oiiteriiig Research Lahbota-
ttirx Since 1 972 he has set xiii as Be-
searcicii l~i tot- the Agr icultural lBe
seatrch St ix it ilt Pit(Ili t nkixtsitx
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
SUMMER/ 19/5 VOL, 22, 
NO. 2
A quarterly report of research published
by the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
R. DENNis ROUSE ------ _Director
Si SN it P. WVILSON Associate IDircctoi
CHAS. F. SIMNS ------ Assistant Director
T. E. CORLEY ---------Assistant Director
E. L. McGxAW ---------------- Editor
R. E. STEVENSON ------- Associate Editor
Roy ROBEtRSON ---------Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Commnittee: 0. L.
CHAMBIitSS, Associate Professor of Ilorti-
culture, 11. S. LARSEN, Associate Professor
of Fore stry/; EARL L. WIGGINS, Professor
of Animial and Dairy Sciences, ANT) E. L.
\eGRAxv.
Auburn University is an equal opportunity
employer.
I ON THE COVER. Catfish pond aeration
ii done by 1, hp. electric motor is illustrated.
iiSee story on page 3.
FIG. 2. Motor and paddlewheel sides of catfish pond aerator used to oerote experimental catfish ponds at Auburn.
C .O\IIIINA rl ION OF X\loN 
\N11.1 XX XI! lll,[ I(
Ilouidi days Xill late Xllnlcr (-all llllt it
ioxx oxygeii levels for l('( eatlisil piIlldi's
Tile criticail period is likely to be( jus
after XlIIII'I 
Xc (its 
Xi o\\x ill 
Fi gur 
I I
XX ill oX Crl ilit (Icliblili lilaX (i
1
icpto0I
till ol\gell Xtlage ill thec WXater and IV-
li\ii3 park ).tOXlltilCiojX p .11) Il at 
fih ,oll li11111 O\X'i feed \it elschli 1)1
asni. Oxval eels ' (1 )CIoXX I p.p.nl1. ale
likeX to lead~ to fIih kills.
Test Aerator
SeverialI tX pCX of mlechan ical .ll'ratol)s'
are I' illisIcI to mailitaill all al(llat('
(IiXXoiXed ox.X gell ilevel ill catfisil polld.
illIXO' iiilludt air b~ilowers, XlibllergIel
binlg deveCloped~ allnd tested at the -Xtnl
ciltill rli Expelrient Statioii is i adl
Padd lewhccls
For Catfish
Pond Aeration
C. D_ BUSCH and J. L. KOON
Depar-tment of Agricultural Engineering
XX hel powXxeredt bY aX '/4 ill). Ii t't't lit o r1
HigI i e 2 ). 'Ill', paddIch'xi
1
ei ihas it,~
prll('it (LIX tIse ill tile treaItmen'lt oh (IoI
illostic XCXX age id ivIXestoc'k Xwastes. Bel'
Iiced ill ize, it is n oXXwIX sh\illg ipromi 5I
asX all etwi" s(rg aver Xhii usXed to 10,1111
talilI II\ g l)llievel oi -1 catflih flldS
Auburn Tests
Ill tISIXS at tile \llbhol FilShICI I('X Be-
I if d it('I 
I l l 
a C tim (' 
i 'cl tI 
prll i o'
sht Nil Fiatr 3.IIC The IlladI t lewhoI eII
Initiw theI IlIN n le\ XX abot e(11 5I
Po~wer
lIts(
* 1L-
kloIll laft ll.
'II'x'
11
'
1
'ic t15 472
Ae'ratorl 16 5 1:3
LI I I
Il pl il
Aci t, I
FIG. 1. Typical dissolved oxygen pattern.
1) 11 ) .\ il t he II folIltil r t tll 1 b{
tl gIX it t ICl i eo% 4 CI t 1(11 01
Itt acrte l e ('acil Xl)k XXiti p l (tt
\ elll li 20 l com are w
1
1 laiht ia ll S)
11001 Jli tilc lligif Sfolail ca .Vl
table (ives e sul9t-4 si ls Irnifu
I10)1atr I od aX valc h stocke Cl l t 80 0 t
tcliXal 'il ctish. The l l rltito X calipi
1 1 
ill'
prx90 t-1 20e ofth >a+il. io
Fr /n avrg p\c 
cs f 00
per kioathute otoiad
FIG.l 3. olwl andll~ biofilter isslve
cxyge profcie szdpol
Poolld
N o.
I I
FOI UIING OF THlE FEDJERAIL
AGRIII'LTI'l 1111I EXPERII T
STITIOI SYSTEMI
ROY ROBERSON
Department of Research Information
ED)ITIORS NOTI : 1111, 1, the fi-t
xl(Oiiit of the 
5
' utia
IFROM05 A SLi ll Of SuspicionI alnd dlogged
decteriniation of at young chemist in Conl-
nectielit a hunoiided yasago, sprang the
wxorld's largest agricultural research or-
ganizatioii- 'Ihel( A gricuolt ur al Expert-
muent Stiitioii Sx stem xx itli oxvir 100
scientists ill 501 states, Goaiu, Poci to
Rico. iti(1 lit Viirgin lsliiiiil.
It liegaoi xx itli Sztiiiiel loiiisoi, a Newx
Ytoik 1)0111 lciiist wh Io Ibctsid ii(ed at
Y ale anid iii Germ any. lie ireturniedl to
-Nexx fiavt'i, Connecticut and Y ale Uni-
x ersitY ats a professor of analy tical dhim-
istrx in 1 855. Johnson took an active part
iii agiiciiltii and became a proponent
ofi wxhat sciii H could do to h elp farm-
il(g. At at iiietiiig of the New Yoik Ag-
reoultural Society in 1856, lie lectured
oii the piroblleim that fariiirs iii the north-
eastern U.S. had encountered concern-
ing high prices for fertilizer that often
c'onsistedl p)iiail , of hairbor mud. John-
soil piroposed at moithly anialysis of fer-
tilizeirs xxith puiliication of the results,
wxhlich lie sad wvould compl~ fertilizer
prodlueris to be "honest and careful."
joloson began to advocate a sx stein of
agricultural research similar to those in
operation inl Cermany. He described such
a sx stem near Saxonv, xvhere be had
studied chemists',, as' consisting of anl
expeirimeintal farm wvith laborator ies and
field research, for the exclusiv e piuripose
of promotiiig scientific research onl le-
half of farmers in the region.
The Civil War disrupted Johnson'
plan to start a state agricultural reseairch
system in Coiiiecticut, l)ut in, 1866 hie
helped establish a Board of Agricuiltuie.
Inl 1873. Ie( wxas namred chairman of a
committee to study way s of setting up
';I il a ex~periiment Station sx stein. .\tt;
I 7 mecti i s, the Colniecti ciit Board ol
\giltiiire tlrexsN up a bill iii 1875 to
p~lace such at station unider its jurisdic
tioni. The bill appeared doomned to defeat
in ttil a 1) pilisi ei and local agi icnl tioralis t
took tip the fight to hav e it passed. The-
legislatuire passed the bill andl allocated
Siiiidig for 2 x ears, thus, thle first Agri-
cuiltural Experiment Station xvas bori
October 1, 1875 at Wvteslevan University.
BxN, 1877. the experiiueiit station had
provenl its v'alue and was set upl onl a
pernliment basis. tt xxals cooti olled bv a
State Board xx hicli replaced the W cs-
lex ii I. nix crsitxv trustees, wh lizod -ox-
elie ith le id tial statioli.
-ohinson", s mistruist of the hi tilizii oii-
dustr\ wax s bm i L no bx thli irst t uid
at the~ uexx lIv haoiiedl Fxpciiiieiit Stattionl,
xx idh it s i e-locittetl at \il al' I.ix cisitx'
ili Xess flaxen iii 1877. Jonsonis, experi-
ieiit proxd that the s5iiposedly rich
Pertixiaii gulimi being shipped to farm-
esiii the northeastern U.S. xxas mostly
harbor mudi and decayed vegetable mnat
ter wonrthu only $ 1.03 per toii, though it
wvas selliiig for $32 at toii.
Another cam lx advocate of thle experi-
ment stationi concept xvas Willard C.
Flagg, who b~ecame a student of Scot-
laud's: H ighiland arid Agr icultural Society.
While Johnson wvas xxorking towvard the
experiment station concept iii Coniiecti-
cut, Flagg was espousing it in Illinois.
Flagg sooni realized that others wvho
shared his groals also sought guidelines
on uiiiform research proceduires. In 1871
lie persuaded Illinois Uivxersity Presi-
dent Johii NM. Gregory to call together
the presideiits andi professors of 12 land
grant institutions for a meeting in Chi-
cago. A committee wvas set up to provide
guidlhines for experiments at agricultural
colleges.
By 1874 iiiterest inl the exper iment sta-
tion concept had spread wxest to Cali-
fornia. Inl that x'ear Eugene Woidemnar
Hilgard xxas allotted $2.50 by the Cali-
fornia legislaturie to organize- studies onl
problems peculiar to California's topog-
raphy and agriculture. By the 1880'sex
peili iii itt i t .0111 551)5c ill l
1 
,tiiii foill
Alabamia (the Auburni Station beganiin
1883) to California.
Thel( experiment station idea caught onl
ipii k. and in 1887 the U.S. Congress
pa e fte ] latch Act, which provided
fori t ilidinig of cXpi nemt stations at
laind gTimot collegres iii each state. Th'
fI)I escuIIt itgi icilltuil l expeuliiliieiit Statinil
xx steli cllisists ()f e\piiiieiit staticoiis
inl all of the 501 stattis. Ciiaii, Thie Virgin
Islanlds. iild Piuertii Rico, xxkithi mlost states
bx ii ig suibstationis for- spiecialized re-
search iii different sectimis of the stitte.
Ill aditin to dcx ehopilig thiousanuds
of ness scc d v ariet ies, imiiproxved amiimu ii
biceds, Ilitihiincs, and other scientific
Iii iaktioiighs that aillow *5 ' of the
\meiiciiij popilatiom toi puidiice fioid
a iid fib ei for the othler i95%, tI ere I as
beein some research that isin't ordinarilyv
thoughit of as agriculturail. F~or example,
in 191.3, scientists at fte Coinnecticut stat
tion discoxered a substance iii butter that
is essential to animal 'gi nx ti. The sub]-
stance xwas later nimned itani A.
Not only do todax 's agricitni al ex-
periulient station scientists hiaxve to be
coiisuimier watch dogs, like Saiiuel John-
soii, they have to be ecology minded,
economics minded, cfhicieiicv minded,
anid careful in general iiot to disturb their
surroundings, xxhile seikingr xxavs of pro-
x iding food, clothing. aind shiilter for the
woirhI. After 100 years of' xxorik, the task
appeairs greater thaii ev er for experiment
station scientists, lint the resourcefulness
that prompted Samuel Johnmson to ques-
tioll the xaliditx of Migh pricedi fertilizer
iii I 857 xwill spur scientists from the Ag
ricijltural Experiment Station system tii
eni ithiim to dexvchip liex\, infoimation
whiich is the fooimiltiii iif efficient ag-
riculture.
Two Housing Systems Prove Equal
For Confined Swine Nursery
D. J. JONES, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
J. L. KOON, Department of Agricultural Engineering
J. T. EASON, Sand Mountain Substation
Slatted floors reduced labor requirements
for cleaning of swine nursery pens.
11Ix-c mlade confinietd sxwinie rearinig sxx-
tens .ippieilitig to bogT farmers. 1. mif~trto
fot mat iii aboiuitit pig I )t'i ailcc' atnid
labor lo)1 miaiiirlir atidliuig to idlentify'
tile moist diesirable Is pe oif cotifimienet
titir sci xxstemi for use in the Siittli.
Tius lack of infonrm ation promt 1 edI tlr
coiisti'tction of twswxxinc ntier xlx iuieS
at thei Siid XI \ I11t i S cLISttt 6iii, Ciross-
xvill e, lot it st' iii research i. Tilec facil ities
prid ed Ifor cxaI i a timi g labor' req Iuire'-
illeiits antd pig Ipertormnnaice lisin g txxo
iiethiodils otm itt ic tdi sposal andii fixe
Sx pc' iof floors.
Eatl otrxeiv xmleasu red 20) X 64 ft.
antd 'onltainiecd c'igit 8 X 16-It. penls.
One was built mxer .1 lagoon and the
other oxver a ])it.
Floor's exaluatetd xwere: (1) 4 X 4-in.
oak xx liit slats, (2) 4-in. alumintum slats.
(3) -1-io pou'-in-plice concrete slats.
(4) - in lporcelaiiiiictl steel slats, and
(5) xolid contcretce flooit. All slat spacings
wxere I ill.
the iourscr% hotuses at 2 xweeks post-tar-
YONViiig aini remainied there until pigs
55cr \%' xcaoeI att 8x weeks. Supplemental
li at wxas piroxvided as nieeded lix the pigs,
a id ali 18% clthb' proteini creep] ration
\5 ix av ailabhle at all] times.
Mlethiod of waste disposal had no sig-
iiicaiit effect oil pig average daily gain
or oi ttal creep feed coti stimled per pi a
tu ilg tile 6-\s eik test piei od. Pig dhails
ginil ax eragTed 0.65 l1). for those inl houis( s
,itboC pits aind 0.63 lb., for tliose aliox
la groi i. Fee(l (oils timed per pig aver-
ager(ld I6.1 ani 16.01b l., respectixelx', for
thet pit id hlgoon i iirseries.
Cassi's liiriti ccd hx v loat ire decoml-
1
)ositioii can liax it (letriuliceital effect onl
pig performan ce. InI tllis stuix', hiowexver,
pi ,gs performed eipiallv \\ ell onl each
xWaxte rdisposal xx stem. Venitilation il bothi
houstiex xxias mnaintainled lix idtlg\ x (tila-
toas atit bvx raixing an love it drop
eutiti al ong tile xide.
Axverage ambiienit temperature was
higher 1)0th dax' and nig,,ht in thle houlse
ovxer the lagoon. p ohahlx' hecause wvato-r
inl tile lagZoon absorbled ai it later releasetd
heat. Althoutghi high temnperatuires coulid
hav e aeit epr ii ig effect on soxw lacta-
tioti. tlisx xxas t) reflected in pig per-
fotniatice inl this studv.
'Fthe floor xx stemn on xwhich pigs were
rearedl had noe xigt ifficant effect ron aver-
aedailV *' 1 gain ii, CI tt'i 1SUPpT citi-rpim
pigr. Onl the btasis of' pig- petrfirnatce ill
the mimirserx , Ii eieli re, thle soitit cotnicrete
floor had nio avi aitage oxver a slatted
flo.
PIG PERFORMIANCE~ AND LAO xiii ii i ,t IMi xiix ox Fix i] Ii iii 'xxxiV\i x
P~erformiance meiasure
(Niiiiri I
slats
Restilt, hxv t\ pe II ioi
it
1  
Alittmi- Iorn steel Filly
Ijts 1111ni slitts slats concreted
Ave rage' daily gain, lb). 0.62 0.65 10.63 0.66 0.64
Creep timistimptioui pig, lb). 15.6 16.4 15.7 16.1 18.0)
Labor/soxv and litter, mumn 57 76 43 47 I 716
Laboi r i i irtmnent, p)ct. oif
fillx\ contcreted floor :32 1:)24 27 1001
NmimnIII r of pigs -421 '360 473 371 14(0
\'illobir of Iitter. - .5 1 1- 5.9 " __55 is
'Daita cmixer 6 xxeeks-frotii 2 xxii(ks post-farii x ig to x tamijngt timie at 8 week.
Luil ir ,ive n is for teein lg and c~ctii i one~ 8 X 16 ft. pen i tai niiim onie 
sx x nd0(
litter.
1 Totil tmt11iiihi of tc ilx t~pi float xx ire: 4 eiiiicriti' slits. 4 xx ioil slits., 3 aiotiiiii
slats, 3 pinrtilainize'd steil slat'. andii 2 f illh- ciii ii itmi.
I .t lii Ii) ul dIll i th x a\ i
betsween solid and slatted floors. Sosvs
and litters cotifitied to thet futllsv cotncreted
floor s - sten tequiired approxiniately 4
titmes as ill ic
1  
l ahor as for tI ise iii pet is
xx ith citbet p~orcelainize(] steel 
slats iir
alutmintut slaits, as shoxx 1) vi data imutr
table. Although theie \\e eti fexxem feiet
.ini1 leg ilitjunies onl fills\ iiicl i'eteil 
llOiii
high labor re'quiteetnts xx iitlt pt imhablv
itrecludle their uise.
Artntuii thle slattetd flioirs, those tmade'
of oak xwoii h iad highe st l abor rteqire-it
nemits. Some if these xxooiid slats became
xxarped. xxhIichi iticreaxeti tittit 
fo~r (hcail-
it g. If xxotiot slats are u sed, spatetrs
xshoutld lit plai elcx r 2-." ft. ti ,isxne
lIiifiiriii slot xx iih. Alsoi oIxI drieid 
tiii-
her xhltti be tised.
The mlost tdurable slats xwere tlimso
mtatle of tomict ite auth almimiiim. Thlese
xx ere easv to steam thean and 
fexw had
tio e replaced oxver the 5-year 
sttidv
period. At i excellent etiticrete slat call
lie constructedl oil tile farmIl (polr-mul-
place slats),. proxvided proper 
care is
(-x en ti ito tiopottiotliiig tilei mix, 
castitig
the slat. atid] coiring. tiless proper 
prto-
cedtires are followved tile slats 
may chip
.itid] crack, resuilting inl 
sharp ctittii:.r
etlges that call injure a pig's 
leg. Pre-
catst conciretc slats that are oin the 
maiket
hiaxe the arixantage 
of nniform qtialilx'
lit construction.
M\an' oit the porcelainized steel 
slaits
hiad to he rep~laced becatuse 
of t tst it i
,ilitl deteioration, iisuilh at aI jimciit
\01t i anthe ir slat or arou ntl 
the hiolt se -
cttm big slat to floor. The g,,lass coatitg 
of
tile slat. xxhich munst t eroaiii ititact 10
prexetit rustinig, appears stubject 
to bivak-
age at the pnints indhicatedl.
Finhiuis ftrom the Saind Mloutaint Sith)
station project indicate that either 
iiti-
.set-\ hioiisiuig svstemn (pit or lagoon) 
xx'itlt
concirete or alummiui slats call 
athe
it atelx' setrxe South etrn 
I)g prodlt it , x
Howeverx cxIi.s\\i prtidiiers pl at ii 
to
bijld a1 tiirse x inl the ftmte max' xx ai
loi 15 alt ate a1 xxaste disposal sy~stemi
xx hit hi pei'ihiallx- fltisiis miatitre 
aol1
oioeitc fromt thit ilirsers, inlterio~r. 
'1liis sys-
wtml shoiis p romtiise of hax inf- loxw luihor
I 1)111 iiii'iits xx huec im
1
)ro ino elixiroli-
inetit xx itliiii the house. Such at xx xtcmI
can he iibstrved ait thle Msaini Staition,
Auhutii.
MULTIPLE APPLICATION
OF DINOSEB DELIVERS
KNOCKOUT BLOW TO
TOUGH PEANUT WEEDS
GALE A. BUCHANAN, Department
of Agronomy and Soils
ELLIS W. HAUSER, USDA.ARS'
JAMES BANNON, J. G. STARLING,
and HENRY IVEY, Wiregross Substation
IFTHEY HIAD HI~iAN emotions, Florida
beggarxeed atid] sicklepild xxould 
be xxori-
ried about their future. Results 
of lluetx
resealrch inidicate that multiple 
applica-
tionis of (ios0ebl may' be the 
xx capon to
prov ide xvictor 'v over these 
txxo trou-
blesonit xx eds iii Alabama and 
Georgia
p(itinIit filds. Effectixve control 
of Florida
lltggilxx ed and sicklepod 
xxoutld t epre-
sit i rin aior accomlmI!islhmen 
t. xlechati-
cal icontrol is getuerallx 
utisatislactorv,
hiand putllting is tooi expenisiv 
e anid lierbi-
-' oitiellx Assi statnt Stuperintendent, 
WXir,-
grass Stuibstatin, antd niowx Graduate 
Assis-
tanit, Loutiisiania Sttt' .ins i 
it
bt\ I- 1-6-dlttiititjilaiitt. Xliii 
ii salts art
Often lemicd tit sittipl\ 
is "Dinlittit di-
Prtiergc , 13 :..,mitt, Si tilt 
PE comtrbina~t itons
xx itli ilitiaiar ,ir d sittis Aiicratk, 
Do ap.
Clean peanuts in foreground received 
3 ap-
plications of dinaseb. Weedy plot 
in back-
ground got no herbicide (check plot).
cide treatments hav e not been saitisfac-
torx
Dinioseb is the most wxidely used her-
bicide for wxeed control in peanuts, mainis
as a cracking-time or early postemergence
treatment, but single applications often
don't get the job) done. Oflten it is applied
in combination xx ith alachior ( Lasso) , di-
phecuiaid (Entide, Dvmnid ) or- naptalamn
C Alitnap ), wh ich prov ides some r esidual
Wxeedl control.
Experiments we re begun in I 970) 
its-
itig multiple applications of dinoseb. This
wxas a team effort, xx ith Auburn Uiiiver-
sitv Agricultural Experiment Station
xx orkitig xith tUniversit 'N of Georgia Ex-
periment Stations and U.S. Department
I) Agriculture. Ileseatc \,it s 
done in
areas h axving a it airls I iax x in festatilon
ofsick lepod in FlorIida I eggarx ed, or
honth. Results t (pot ted here are 
oil].
from the Al abam a test locatiotns.
Peaniuts in test plots xwerie treated xxvithi
bet efini ti contro
1 
a tnnual grass atnd small-
seeded broadleaf weeds. flitoe w0( xas 
ap-
plied either alone or in combination xxithi
itaptalatn. Rates from 0.56 tol 1.0 lb). per
acere xwere applied xxith ~onvxenitionl~
grounid sprayer set to dleliv er 15-201 gal.
of spray per acre.
Control oIf sicklepod aiid Florida 
beg-
garweetI xNias sulistantialx bletter xvith
0(.75 and 1. 1) l. per acre than xxith 
[t(t
0.56-11). trate. As inat iv as six applicationt s
of the loxxest rate (lidl not gixve conisisteiit
con trol at the XX iregrass Substation.
Dinoseb
It i i i iI ) r itf
tioti 
17
Pct.
0.56lIb. /acre
1' :1 1)
2 44 all)
4 281)
8 
7
0tia
0.75 lb./'acre
I 4th1
2:36 1
4 -- --- 5:3 ab
6 82 i
8 --- tai
1.0 lb./acre
6__
8 ----- -----
Cotitrl-- 0 c
WXheti the rate xxas 
iticreased to 0.75 lb.,
hoxvever, control xxas acceptable from
onlxy four applications. W~here 
sicklepod
xxas the predomitiant xweed species, 
six
ap~plications were required 
for satisfac-
tory control. Txvo applications at 
1.0) lb.
per acre gave control in one experiment.
Dinoseb did a better jot) of killing 
the
xxeedis immediatels after they 
emerged
than after true leaxves began expanditig.
Activity xvas coitsiderablxv 
better xwitht
0.75 atid 1.0 lb). per~ acie 
thatn wvith 10.56
lb. Further obserxvatiotns revealed 
that
Florida beggarxeed xxias more 
susceliti-
ble to tlititsch than was sicklepod.
Yield of peanitts xx,,as tnt reduced 
by
six or fexxer applicatiotis of 
0.56 atit ((.75
lb. perV acre. Eight ap~plicatiolns 
tended
to loxxer productiotn.
Yields(1 inic uate a surpi,~risin g 
tolerance
(if pe-atbuts to repeatedi applications 
of
(liii st I. Based oti 4-year 
fitnd ings, pea-
nut, s xxill tlebrate at least fourt 
appl icai
tion'. iol dinoseb at 0.75 1l). per 
acre. It is
in1)mporanit to reinembet, hi 
\xxcx er, thtat
factoris such as temnpetrattire, spi 
ax vu cve-
a ge, i li prexviout s pestic0ie 
treatmen ts
in tax affJect sutscep tibilIitx itt peat 
iuts toi
(littiseb as thex influenice xxe 
ect otrtol
sutccess.
Effectixeniess againist the 
txso trouble-
some xxeeds -Florida beggarxxeed 
at id
sicklepod -atid safety' ott peanuits 
in the
research repor-ted suggest that 
multiple
appillication s of (linosel) xxill 
fi11 a ti ed iii
future xx'eed conitrol programs. 
The treat-
mnet ts described atre not 
presently lat-
beled, bitt such label clearancee 
is ex-
p)ected for the 1976 groxx'ing 
seasoni.
WVeetl citt itPeaniut intjury
1972 (9713 1971 (972 197:3
25 c
48 hc
74 ib]
60 illtt
99 it
1:3 c,
64 abt
81 ab)
86 abl
1001 at
2t0 v
44 (Ie
4:3 de-
20) e
29 dc
25 de
54 (It
85 abl
8:3 il)
88 ill)
51 (IC
98 at
96 i
86 abl
98 at
2 f g
tIg
2 f
2f
221)
4 cfIi
19 Ia.
Pg
Pg
' 3 
Cfg,
12 bed
:3:3 it
Pe anut yieldl acre
1971 (972 1973
1.976 it]
(.976 all)
2,12-1 ill
2,058 ill
1,471 (Ie
1,829 abt
2,271 ill
2,375 at
1,97.5 abc
1,323 c
:3'8S9 at
2,920) a
:3,181 it
4,1:34 it
2,50)2 at
3,916 at
2,756 at
:3,47:3 at
2,774 at
2,2121b
Od 0 f 0 b 0Pa 
(19 1,666 abe 2,614 at
2,865 abl
2,960)a
2,865 abl
2,594 it
1
)
2,358 1)
2,80(1 it
1
)
2,90)1 ill
2,697 all
2,88:3 itll
2,344 1)
2,88:3 ill
2,937 ;it
:3,0(60 ii
2,556 illi
2,84:3 ab!
' Valoes within a column noit followed by the same letti 
itrt sigificantly (differett tho
0.05 level.
EFFEiCr OF tMuui. rtLi Att'Ltd xiioNs 
OF Di~ilshti ON CON I Ot. 01' 
St'KLF.PoO AMt) Ft~ontt)x
13H.ARIVEEi), PELiitF~l Ni E~ANI. 
IN JURiY, ANt) PEANU t YIELDI, 
1971-73
Pet. Pct. PI -. P0t, 
Pet. Lb. Lb. Lb.
TE DAIRY INDUSTRY in Alabama and
the United States hasundergone dra-
matic changes since the early 1960's that
affected milk producers, processor-dis-
tributors, and retailers. Rising production
and marketing costs resulted in sharp re-
tail price increases in the past few years,
which caught the attention of consumers.
Alabama is primarily a fluid milk mar-
ket with practically all commercial sales
of milk from Grade A dairies. The num-
ber of dairies reached a peak of over
2,200 in the early 1950's. With adoption
of bulk milk tanks in the late 1950's and
other cost increasing changes on the
farm, many small producers left dairy-
ing. By 1959 the number had declined
to 1,673 Alabama dairymen plus 301
out-of-state dairymen supplying milk to
Alabama processors, see table. In the
past 15 years, the decline continued. Re-
maining dairymen expanded herd sizes
and increased production per cow so that
total milk sales increased. Demand for
fluid milk products increased more rap-
idly, however, and more out-of-state milk
producers were solicited to ship to Ala-
bama markets. Dependence on out-of-
state milk has increased from less than
20% of total supply in the early 1960's
to about 28% in 1975, when in-state pro-
duction declined over 8%. The decline in
commercial sales in 1975 was the first
experienced in Alabama's dairy industry.
In the late 1960's two producer co-
operatives became active in milk market-
ing in the State. These cooperatives are
Associated Milk Producers of Alabama
(AMP), with the main office in Mont-
gomery, and Dairymen, Inc. (DI), a
regional dairy marketing association,
with headquarters in Louisville, Ken-
tucky. AMP is a state-wide association
with out-of-state membership primarily
in Tennessee and Mississippi. DI, which
was formed by merger of smaller co-
operatives, has membership in about 8
Southern States. Currently, over two-
thirds of milk marketed in Alabama is
through these associations. The remain-
NUMBER OF PRODUCERS AND AVERAGE DAILY
SALES OF PRODUCERS SUPPLYING MILK TO
ALABAMA MARKETS, SELECTED TIME
PERIODS, 1959-1975
Alabama Out-of- Av. daily
Yerstate sae
Yer producers producers sae
No. No. Lb.
1959 ...... 1,673 301 728
1964 ...... 1,231 163 1,311
1973 ...... 650 208 2,624
1975 -..... 567 266 2,893
Source: 1959 and 1964 data from Ala-
bama Experiment Station Bulletin 871; 1973
(July) and 1975 (January) data from the
Alabama Dairy Commission.
ing volume is marketed by independent
milk producers who ship directly to spe-
cific processors.
Producer marketing associations en-
gage in such activities as milk hauling,
pooling supplies, diverting milk to its
best use, seeking new markets, bargain-
ing for prices, and representing producers
before regulatory agencies and legisla-
tive bodies. Following cooperative or-
ganization in Alabama, an early effort
was to gain control over farm-to-market
assembly of milk. Lower rates were ne-
gotiated; later the Alabama cooperative
gained control over hauling. Following
a study of hauling costs in 1973, a rate
schedule was developed based on volume
of milk shipped and distance of the pro-
ducer from the market. The schedule
was adopted by the cooperative and in
1975 about three-fourths of farm-to-
market assembly is under the common
schedule. The rates have also been
adopted by haulers of independent pro-
ducers' milk.
Producer cooperatives on a significant
scale were late in developing in Ala-
bama. Favorable Class I prices and the
ability of individual producers to main-
tain a high blend price through a quota
system discouraged cooperative develop-
ment for years. In the 1960's, Alabama
producers recognized the need to organ-
ize and act on their own behalf. The old
Milk Control Board did not (and could
not) provide all the market services
needed by dairymen. Further, the future
of the Board was uncertain. Subse-
quently, the State Legislature changed
certain provisions of the milk control act.
The notable revision was a change in
membership of the agency from an in-
dustry dominated board to a five-member
consumer commission.
Number of milk processors declined
from around 50 in the early 1960's to 23
Alabama processors in 1975. Most pro-
cessors leaving the business were small
producer-distributors and local indepen-
dent firms. However, two Alabama plants
operated by regional and national chains
were closed. Their customers are being
served by the same brands being pro-
cessed under their brand label by other
dairies and from other plants operated
by the chains. In early 1975 the seven
largest plants processed an average of
32,000 gal. per day (12,000 gal. per day
in 1960). Currently the four largest milk
processing firms in the State operate 11
plants which process over 60% of the
fluid products in the State.
Entrance of integrated processing op-
erations by grocery chains and a pro-
ducer cooperative occurred about 1970.
One grocery chain constructed a limited
line milk processing plant in Alabama
while another purchased an existing
plant. Some grocery chains are being
served by their brands which are pro-
cessed in other states. In other instances,
conventional processors are packaging
milk for grocery chains under the chain's
label. Fluid milk products from six in-
tegrated operations are being distributed
in Alabama. Three of these plants are
located in the State.
Changing shopping habits of consum-
ers brought about a shift in milk distri-
bution from home delivery to store sales.
In January 1975, slightly over 90% of
milk sales in Alabama was through
wholesale distribution. As milk is a major
grocery item, large grocery store accounts
are eagerly sought by processors. Eco-
nomies are gained in selling and distribu-
tion from serving large volume accounts.
Thus, much bargaining strength in the
industry shifted to grocery chain man-
agement.
The Alabama Dairy Commission regu-
lates the, fluid milk market at all levels.
The Commission and its predecessor the
Milk Control Board have regulated the
state's dairy industry since the mid-
1930's. Alabama has one of the oldest
continuous state milk regulatory pro-
grams in the country.
State regulatory programs where retail
prices are established have long been
subject to controversy. State control of
milk prices has been eliminated in sev-
eral states including Georgia, Mississippi,
and Florida. However, the evidence is
not conclusive that consumers in these
states have benefited. Attempts are be-
ing made in some of these states to re-
establish regulatory agencies.
Future adjustments will likely be a con-
tinuation toward fewer but larger pro-
duction units and a further expansion of
producer controlled marketing activities.
Processors will continue to exit. Remain-
ing plants will increase in scale of opera-
tion while seeking more economical dis-.
tribution systems. Grocery chains will
likely integrate further into processing
unless the industry services their de-
mands.
A CHANGING DAIRY INDUSTRY
L. E. WILSON, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
Some Ways To Conserve Tractor Fuel
ELMO RENOLL, Department of Agricultural Engineering
XGRICULTUBE IN THE U.S. is presently using about 4 bil-
lion gal. of gasoline and 2.5 billion gal. of diesel fuel
per year. This is more petroleum than is used by any other
industr v. While petroleum usage has gradually increased, the
proportion used in agriculture has changed very little during
the past 35 years.
The past 2 years has been the first time in over a luarter
of a century that agriculture has given serious consideration
to its fuel supply. In that 24-month span the price has riseu
sharply and the supply has often been interrupted. Thus it
is impierative for the farm manager to be certain that each
tank full of fuel is used as efficiently as possible. lie needs
to consider carefully which of his tractors to use and how
each will be operated.
The following tips for efficient tractor and machinery op-
eration are suggested: When there is a choice of gasoline,
diesel or LP gas, use diesel. For tractors of about equal size
doing the same amount of work, the diesel engine uses less
fuel. For example, if a diesel tractor used 75 gal. of fuel to
complete a specific field operation, a gasoline tractor would
have used 100 gal. and an LP gas tractor 120 gal.
Keep the tractor engine tuned. A gasoline engine which
is properly adjusted for carburetion and ignition will use 12
to 15% less fuel than the improperly tuned engine. Keeping
the diesel engine in top condition pays off with a 10 to 12%
fuel savings. Check air cleaner frequently, especially under
dusty conditions. A clogged filter increases fuel consumption
and tends to reduce tractor power.
Do a better job of matching the load to the tractor. Use
a small tractor for lighter loads. For larger tractors, consider
Large tractors are needed for heavy field work. These tractors can
also be used to pull several machines at the same time thus saving
fuel and reducing trips across the field.
coupling equipment together to do several jobs at one time.
This will save extra trips over the field and will operate the
tractor nearer full load where fuel efficiency is high.
Avoid lugging or overloading the engine. If engine speed
lugs down, shift into a lower gear. This saves fuel and re-
duces engine wear.
If the tractor is not pulling a full load, throttle the engine
down and shift into a higher gear.
Consider using minimum tillage or other cultural practices
which can either reduce the required horsepower or the total
hours of operation. Using minimum tillage on corn, for ex-
ample, can reduce fuel needs 30% or more. Similar savings
for minimum tillage soybeans can be expected.
If tractors or self-propelled machines are moved long dis-
tances, consider using a truck rather than driving them on
the road. This will save fuel and it is safer.
Efficient field operations require good traction. Excessive
wheel slippage causes undue tire wear and wastes fuel. Con-
sider changing wheel weights according to field conditions to
maintain good traction without excessive weight.
Keep idle field travel time for tractors and self-propelled
machines to a minimum. Shut the engine off while making
field adjustments, loading supplies or servicing equipment.
Operate machines at proper ground speeds. Have them
properly serviced and correctly adjusted. See that cutting
edges are sharp. Mowing machines and forage choppers with
dull knives require extra horsepower. Dull shares on a mold-
board plow increase power needs by 10-15%.
If these suggestions are correctly applied they should re-
duce operating costs, save time and labor, increase operation
efficiency and conserve fuel.
Matching the tractor size to the job is an efficient way to operate
and conserve petroleum fuels. For light loads, small tractors are
more efficient than large ones.
Partial Shadi ng Gives Better A rizona C'ypreis Seedli ngs
WALTER D. KELLEY, Department of Botany and Microbiology
P DUTION OF GOOD quality Arizona cypress (Co pressus
arizonica Greene) seedlings is no easy task. Alabamra no,-
series growing these seedlings have been beset by probleni
for several years. Research by Auburn Uniiversity Agririil
tui al Experiment Station has found no sure cure for dliscai
problems, l)ut results point to an insect, the lesser corn-stalk
borer, as a production problem.
Auburn research, done in cooperation with the Alabamr-
Forestry Commission, has been directed toward control of
foliar diseases. Most prominent foliar disease at the Auburn
Forest Nursery is a tip blight caused by the fungus Curcularia
mU irillednls, which wxas first observed in 1966. Since then
IIe( number of seedlings in nursery b~eds exhibiting symptoms
of this disease has approached 80% (luring some groxxing
Seasonsx.
Earlier cont-rol research indicated that (1) the disease nia\
occur sporadicalix one Year and be sparse or ab~senit thie fol-
lowxing yecar; (2) most damage to seedlings occurred dlirilig
thle hottest part of the summer -jilh and \iigst: aond (3)
inian', ilerrot ic lesions not attributable to U . inl U rill '(lis or
anyv other in iiroorgaritisms wxere present on thle seedlings each
ya apparently of physiological origin).
Field plots wvere established at the Auburn Forest Nure ii v
to evaluiate potential control measures against the dliseaise
problem. Treatments tried during the 2 years included dif-
ferenit fungicides, with and wvithout shading.
InI thle first study year, three fungicidles were evaluated for
effectiveness against Curvularia tip blight: DuTer 47.5 WP
(triphenvi tin hydroxide), Difolatan 4-F (captafol), and
Benlate 50 WNP (benomyl). A single rate of each fungicide
wstriedl in six plots, 'with three of the six plots shaded wxith
Saran shade fabric (63% shade). Shading xwas iiielUded to
determine if loxwer soil and foliage temperatures xwould re-
duce phyvsiological damage. Shade fabric was erected onl
wooden rails 24 in. above ground.
EFFFCT (rF Ft \GICIDES AND SHAnIxr, oN DISEA SE IxNCInENCE
A-\i) SEoLINCe HEIGHT OF Atirzox S CY PRiESS
rwiati i i t. fiuiigicidle an--- -
i'ate per 100 gal, water First
x'ear
(ioitrid
Coniitrol (shaded)
lDiiTei 17.5 NI'. 0.3 11).
'Not shiadedl
shaded
Not shaded -----
Shaded
lcilite 51) \VP, 0.4 11lb.
-Not shaded
Shaided
Se((lliIIIC hai'dt
Seconil Firist Set od
year xNa ( xci'
('mo, cin
2.27b1-
2  
2.66 c
2.1-1 b 2.26(-
2.57 a
2.23 1)
1.50)e 2.77 ab
1.83 cr 2.27 e
15.5 12.2
17.8 163.5
15.3
17.2
1.9:3 c :3.00) a 17.A 14.2
1.67 (de 1.87 d 20.1 18.8
'Diseci'. iindex oii Scale o~f I to) .5: 1 0-20%'', of grixwing
tips disiascd ' 2 " 1-41)'r 3 -41-W ;0 -1 61-80 , and
5 -81-100' . (dead~).
2Niini1).far tollaxx I)\- the samie li-tter 
xxithin at coluin are
not sign iticaat lx dilfeent from one aiiother (p 1)>.015).
Shod, co~cr uspended atbovc Arizona cypress seedlings resulted
in less disease incidence than on seedlings grown in the open.
Piots xxi iiiiiilx seleteld fci treatment and
1 
for Shad-I
inig. Fungicides we re applied onl a 2-xx eek sprax sce il
beginning the fii st xweek Of' Trne and terminating in iti ifek-
gust. Data werce collectedl wxithin a xveek after sprax jor wals
stopped. All seedlings in txxo( subllots in each 1p1ot xx crc ill-
dividually evaluated for rdisease and their heigl its mitsi red.
Each seedling xwas assigned a (lisease index basedl oil the per-
centage of diseased growxinig tips, as recorded in tile talbl-.
The study -xvas the sam-e the second year. exep
1
t that the
fungicide Differ -xvas omnitterl.
Severity of the disease problem is indlic'ated bx' disease
indices reported in the table. Disease incidlence xvas hig~h
during the first year and eveii higher the second. Of the'
fungicides tested the first - ear, Difolatan and lBenlate signii
cantly reduced dlisease incidence. DoTer caused some seed-
ling- injui v. Jni in g the second x-eai , Difolattaji was not ef-
fective, but Benilate unduer shade r educed rdisease ii iidei ic.
Any- fungicide treatment unider shade gave better disi'a,e
control than the corresponding unishaded plot, as sioxx1 b% hx
disease index ratings. Mliddax soil temperaltures ill xsihad
plots xwere 90C (16F) loxwer than ii onoi-sliaded~ jlot,\.
Lower soil temiperatuires could hitx(, resulted iii a rediiet i
of the physiological damage obserxvcd in earlier researeh.
Close examiiiation of soime inecrotic lesions dur-ing lie sie'-
ond( - ear rexvealed what applearedl to be insect dila, ige. Siibi
scqjueiit iiixestigatioiis shoxxed the damnage was caiisedl bv the
lesser corn-stailk borer ( Elasinopalpnms lianoscffiv; Zeller).
Tbhis un controlled varial e com plicatedi interpretation iof' (Ii
case data.
As expected. seedlings groxxn uinder shade wxeire taller tio
those in open plots. Hoxxever, hecight xxas not increased
enlough to redi ice seedlingl fait".
These iresults iiidicate (1) noi e of the fungicides, at the
rate and treitineiit in tervxal testedi, reduced disease iiicideince
to ,in acrepItale lccci ( 2) scl liii igs gioxxii unde r shade cli
crallx exhiblited less diseaise thli their coiiiitei pails inl the
Open; aid (3) r'o il of the lessei corn-stalk borer \\xxill he
necessai x for if t iie fungicide ix ahtiation studries.
Disease index'
Many other types of fish of excellent eat-
ing quality have much lower feed and water
quality requirements than catfish, such as
talapia or carp shown above the catf ish .
CATFISH are not die Only
FISH in the POND
E. W. McCOY, and K. W. CRAWFORD
Departiment of Agricultural Economics and Rurat Sociology
I Ni)LO WIiD nOr liicoltirled Coinditioiis
catfish coi st xxi th i 101 ( Iolis other spe-
cies of fish. each uitiliiiig at differenlt
segment of tile food chainl. Natuiral pro-
dluction, (of coulrse, does ilot x ield the
Inns estahle poun dage obt aiinIed uniider in-
tenisive culture xx itl siupplemenital feed-
iilg.
D~uriing 1974 abhout 1 ,900t Alaiona
f armners devotedI apprioximately 11,000~t
acres of xx ater to catfisi productioin. Less
than 1 ,0t00 of the produicers grews fishl for
sale thlroughl the vaious av ailable mar-
kets. TFie remaiinig catfish producers
mainltainled recreationial ponds for tlleir
owni use and to prosvide fishing for frienids
and relatives. Catfishl producctioii, even
for personal use pondis, xxas similar to
feedlot operatins for cattle or S',vine.
Thle fish xx ere stocked iil pw)1ids ti sialix
ait sizes ranging fromn 3 to itt iii., 0 ,t)I-
03:3 lb). eachl, anld svere fed at high pro -
telin, complete in itriei t ration. I itt i,
growsthl xvas obtaiiied bxv fish feediii g oin
niat ural foodls axvailal e wxitllli ponds.
Txxo biological factors l im it produc- i
tin xwhen ii tfi sIi are stocked and itfIed at
re Iatisel ci biigh rates unidier conidit ions
similar to thlose discussed. First, catfish
do ilot utilize feed efficici tlx wxhen wxater
tem perat ure is hebI\ iss (itF. Secoind(, total
nuitrienits axvailable iil thie ponid atre uin-
ilci utilized. Caitfisfh cio not consume and
coilver it] ol(f' the ratin fedl inito flesh.
Blothi the uiitlizcii feed and catfish hi-
ological waiSmste prodiu1( lcts ei 1ridi thle ini
ti ieiit lev el of the pioiic.
Aiilthler liiiiitiig factoi iii catfish pii-
(Ilict~oii for mlus i frmers is tile iiiailitx
toi lilaiitii xx mter f11ilitx iii their pond1(
sittiimi. Auiatic oni muisms that are alai
coml~petitixve xx ith catfish iiii iiitrieiits,
lax\i, econolimic x lie, and imp)roxve water
ifi .1lits xx (liil 1( be ideal for inicilisioni in
cat fishcil tuiire. Siuch organ Iismfs (01uiid iii-
chude boithl plants and~ aniimals.
Rlesear chers atre iilterested iii aquatic
orgaiins thiat tail extenid tile iise of pra
ciuctiiii facilities and or uitilize the ex-
cess ita iable inttrients durinlg the catfishl
groin ig season. Ideaix . such aquatic or-
gan isms shotild have economic, value, btt
this is ilot mc necessarx con dlition. Ill cases
xx here inlcreasedl Valtie or decreased cost
of1 prdcn catfish exceeds cost (If in-
corporatinlg 
these types 
of oirganlism 
s ,
then tfiev ciould feasibly he included in
lie p riiott10ion init.
T1riiit p)erforml wxeli wh len xwater tenil
peratoire is belows 60'tF. Good xxater
qualit is reqiriied hbv troult, but the dOll-
(Itl(Iii is siomewhiat easier to illmiiitmii
11i1hid1 relitix ely cool xxatei temtpe ratutres.
Se \i ,il Alabamia procducers wxithl suffi-
cielit wxater supplies are dloublle croppinlg
their ponds olr racewvays. Trout aie
st~cked iu late fall], fed through thle xviii-
ter monithls, aid h
1
arxvestedi duringr the~
eairix sfing M51~i tile xxater temperatuire
is xxai niiig Pondus or racexvavs are imi-
inc'diatelx r estiocked wsith catfish xwhIichl
r eacih funvestihie size byv fll. The feed
rI l iirlnici its for trouit and catfish are
similar afliiugli catfish caii le fed .1
lowxxerI cost ra tiion . The f ccc coiiversion
ratiols for trouit lnd catfishi aie approxi-
illitcei', thei Saint,. The dciiiaid i c ofi, trouit
i; b igi io til ot li recreatiili aini inarket
sales. ai icf the resuiltiiig high lix exxeight
price provides a goodl profit 
mar gin. So,
in some instances the trout operation
with its higher variable costs is more
I I fitabie than catfish.
-k species that has been successfully
i1tured for quite a while is the bait
iinow. Many fishermen wxho regularly
ii chclase bait ininxx (1 dl sot realize
Iat the fish ar e pot id raisedl. 1Bait miii-
lv rodclltioni is highly' developed in
tic Mississippi Delta aind dlealers haul
the small fishl to all parts of' the country.
AMabamra hats one major bait iiiiow pin)-
tdnter who oper ates onl a similar basis.
Some biological research hats showxn that
the bait mninnoxv canl le successfully uti-
lizedi to capture excess food supply in
the pond wxhen catfish fingerlings are
smnall. Then as catfish become 
larger,
the, coilsilnie the bail inniiiiw s. thus
uitilizin Ig thosel5 excess liii tiiei ts capltutred
early, ill the pirodui ctin pjeriod.
Buiff ab ifsh, carp, Ti Iapia a. 11( other
species 1 inliigicall s a ppeai to coiple-
meit catfish wxeli iider po01 , culture Cni
(litmulls. Sinice at poiid is a ii ('re (lflicil-
sioiial spaie (on tainiing bothl plilits andl
ailimals. fish that graze oii aqfiatic p~lanlt,,
anud fish that feed oji aquatic aiiiabs
should utilize at high degree of the avail-
able niuitrien ts inii pon d. Un fort unately,
the market demnd for maiuv of these
species ats food fish is relativelx low.
Luider these Cii cLUmStances iincorpoiration
of at second fish species in the pond must
increase the prodluction of catfish or the
iiet market gain from the second species
must exceed the reduced market of cat-
fish. For example, if catfish sell for 45c
per lb). and Tilapia at 15( per 11)., 3 lb.
of marketable Tilapia must be sold for
every pounid~ that catfish production is
decreased. In a wvild or natural state
these two species are iiot compe(titors.
[Tocer pnid coiiditioiis xx uth 
supplement-
ar-v\ feeding, lioxx exer. mnany of the Ti-
lapia coinsume the feed ration rather than
seeking naitiural food1 items, nill like
steers oIil paZst lire t Iiat wxill coiislinid' grilli
if axvailable iii preference to grass.
Mlani other types (of fish (of excelleint
eat iiig (Iia l its have inuiich lowver feed ai d
water (fualitY reqiriiements tliai catfish
aild requiire inuch lower lexvels of capital
and manalgenieiit Common carp, con-
sidlered at trash fish in the Uniitedi States,
have hisw level capi tal ai d iniiagemnie it
re(jiiirenieiits. Althioughi ot produiced cx-
teiisivelx iii this couilti v, tl cx are the
most xvideix- cuiltuired fish iii the world.
Ill icoiiclusion. cat fish alre iio t t I e ni I',
fish iii the ponid and researchi canl lead to
terns xx iicli \\ill uitilize eatch niche iii the
food ciiaiii aiid returin ouitput to iniput
ratios unithinikable at thle pres'ent timel.
Marketable tomato yields went as high as
750 bu. per acre from one harvest when
grown with adequate water and fertilizer.
B OT (tl I LLD AN IZE oi f t toflltonS arl
increased hv ir rigation and nitrogen at)-
plicationls. Bunt there's no nieed to uis'
large arnm tits of eithier. A medium irri-
gration level andc loxx to mrediumi N rat's
coitriil to ivie mios t profitable pr d
Experiru cit St atin re search.
Expet imet its xxetc cotndcted at Tiori
Its (1(1ilig 1971 -7:3 wxith the objectixve ni
identitx ing nitrogeon ieeds and Icart tin
the valune of suapplem etntal in igat ion. Fi\x
rates of fertilizer N at three ](,\(,Is )t
irrigation ( ftrrovix mrethod) Iwere evalu-
atecd.
lirrigatiot I lev els wee ( I ) ito it rig.1
tion. (2) irrigated %\hlit :30% of av ail-
able wxater t eiitiiiedl ill the soil - t/ti
mioll(' 'tl, iid (3) irtrigated ll xit
60% of ava:ilable wa tter remlan icd i hligh
he eel. Thi e itt teno edi ate lex eI alit\,e t thc Ile
soil to beconme relatix clx dr\s . ht otin
iliw entigh tt cause plailts tou xxilt. idig
irrigatiot i kept thle soil at at high lev el of
noistutre at all times. Ratinfatll (lititig the
grttxxirg seasn w xas abot 95% of tiorm til
iitng 1971 alli 197.3, bitt ootlv 60% ill
1972.
Nittrngeti apliitittt tates xx ete t0, 60,
I 20. 1801, atid 241)1lb. per aicre. All plots
lIS i NI xxii titti I l IiitA I lilA
1, .i ,s I 17
tLb.
N /acre
1971
0)
61)
120)
181)
241)
Pc tcre yield by irrigatioti level
Noine 
Inter-
1.6. Lit
19. t100
5:3,1001
4 8,:300~
49.7100
4.3.,4100
0) 52,7001
61) 04,2001
120) 56,600t
241) 17j)1(10
197:3
0) 1:2,2001
61) 52,2001
121) 53,811
1810 59A0011
241) 5:3,.5001
1971t-7:3 average
0) 44,7100
61) .56 5100
121) 52,9001
1801 57 17111
241) 48,3001
45, 500~l
47,2001
49,0001(
.50,:41100
.5010011
6:3,8001
86.,8111
82,401)
88.1001
7:.21 ii
42,.5001
60,600il
6910001
67.,50111
601500
.510,(6(1
64,9006
66,8001
68 7(11
61,.3001
I I gh
1Li1.
.40,0t00)
5:3,30(1)
55,40t0~
49,9001
5I1,8001
6:3,3011
80I, 3001
9.5,10t0l
9:3.6001
41 91111
5431(1
68 (1111
47,.7001
58, 50011
68,50)0
62,7111
711,100
xx etc fertilized x iti, P~ iid K itccordit
to Soil te(st.
Best ktiox i cidil 
1 
ptractices xxet
utsedl for the Staked tiiriatocs, .tttc sprax 
-
ilig \\,its (lone reguiarx to cottiol insects
alI id diseases. Tomatoes wxere harvxested
at xxeekl v in terx a I frin late i titte itt til
lat' Atigost.
Growth, Yield Differences
Bate of plitt growxthi carx inl thie set-
soil and plant height at Vegiiiiiiig of
harxvest xxere influten ced inore bx N rate
tha bai yi irrigat ion. Mo tst icreased p
1
lant
height resulted frin tlte first (it). per
acre of N. Higher rates gaxvc little addli-
tinlal grossthI sI irnolatit it. PIa its axver-
aged 3t0 to 40 itt. tall at begioiiiiig of'
harxvest oxver tlie :3-xeat per io~d.
MIarketable x ielcls xx e ighest ini
1972 anid loxxest itl I1971 I. as sllttssl 1) \
datal ill the t~ilile. Siipplcmle:lial irigatioti
(did not 
itncetease 
x iclcs inl 
1971 or 
197.3.'
hut oiarlx doulcl ptodutctioni iii 1972.
I igliest sield itt tte \csals xx\as iii 1972
lit Iili igat (' ploits. Althouigh train~fall xxvas
ts l iii din-ig lulls tN72, adct~tiate inoistttre
\ppliicl N 111(1easeil tmariketable to-
niato x ilds each Neat. IlTere ssasi at s eld
ttii ase ft (tn (it) lb. pert acre ill 1971
atnd 1972, butt ito aciditioiri btotst ft (ill
highter ra.tes. Iit I 9:3, sicids ssci ill-
creitsec b I12t) lb. Toital .3-seat itx tagc
mat kitblc x lelds t m1iged ftm abutiit
-. 5M00ll lb). pcie t i xxitli no N anid n1o
ir rigationtt) tot tIPlioxitnatilx 71,000t1) l.
;i Ole 240-lb). N rtte atid] higrh irrigatioii.
Fruit Size Affected
Botht rate otf N atid iii igatittn affected
ftit size of tomnatoes. til general, the
Ipercen tage of large tom attics it ereased
ats irrigationi inlcreased l bit decreased xvitli
1
progressis clx high er rates of N. Art aver-
age of all tr~eatmienits for all years shoxs
t)% of matrketabtle totmatoes xxere large
I(diamte~tr 2 11 163 iii. or greater), 16%
xxere miedium (2 12 to 27/s iii. ) , moid 14%
xx ere small (diiameter 2'/4 to 2',; ini.)
Ciull tom ati is inade upl abou tit 1 4% of
totail x leld reigardles of it rri gat init. NI t
cil] t oma toes x etc ftonm (at t tcit g. xxhich
is l)rttl+ 1 lx t it t t atl's tiff te 1 1)v lxSoil
fert iiit x or itlotist ore.
Ih \cxield cinicrease fri i i rrigat itt w xas
tiited tto the ittterltineitte irrigatiton
leel ci. iiicatillg noitil atiatage tot Keep-
lugy sotil itttistoire at it ligh1 lexvel all] the(
timte. Applied~ N itnctreased marketaitLe
viebls alii scars, blit xieii iesptiise 
N,,as
hititel to 60)lb. peri aicre foti 2 xears tioi(
tt 120 1) tit( otther x eat.
Based (til results reporited, the itest
iticl applied N i tte \\itas 611 to 120 lb).
pet itct e tl itfiplitd N atici iiiigatittli ats
tltic v,itt it the ,lii srfitce 2 It. otf sotil.
I
Medium N Rate, Irrigjation Leuel
Best for Staked Tomatoes
B. D. DOSS, Deportment of Agronomny and Soils (Coop. USDA)
C. E. EVANS, Department of Agronomy and Soils
W. A. JOHNSON. Department of Horticulture (Refired)
BERMUDAGRASS TREM(
IN CATTLE IN ALABA
U. L. DIENER, N. D. DAVIS, G. MORGAN-JONES
Department of Botany and Microbiology
J. P. CUNNINGHAM, Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences
J. W. LANGFORD, Plant Breeding Unit
W. C. JOHNSON, Department of Agronomy and Soils
prepared and fed to hamnsters, 
gerbils,
and mice as well as 
guinea pigs, rats,
rabbits, and chicks with no toxic or tre-
morgenic effects. A rapid, inexpensive
ORS 
bioassay system 
for the toxic principle 
is
urgently needed.
AThe predominant fungus present was
isolated and identified and it was not
one of the fungi previously isolated from
bermudagrass hay in the 1973 studies.
Research is currently underway to de-
termine whether this fungus was the
toxin producer or if another fungus of
low frequency is involved. The authors
ultimately expect to isolate and identify
the fungal toxin(s) involved and to de-
velop control measures for prevention of
fungal growth and toxin formation 
on
bcrmudagrass. There are also possibilities
of developing an antidote or treatment
,,:, for afflicted cattle in cooperation with
the School of Veterinary Medicine at
Auburn.
B IE\ninAGi1ASS 'FrExOiS ( BC') af-
fected about 25,000 cattle in over 500
herds in central and northeastern Louiisi-
aua in 1971, resulting in the death of at
least 600 animals. Similar, but less spec-
tacular, outbr-eaks have been reported in
Mississippi. BGT affects the nervous sys-
tem, causing cattle to become extremel 
excitable. Infected cattle twitch, 
tremble,
lose body coordination, become stiff-
legged in the hind quarters and weak in
the front legs, and may eventually fall
down, getting up again only with great
difficulty. Cattle stay alert, but quickly
lose condition as weight gain or milk
production decreases. Milk production in
one cow dropped from 35 to 6 lb. per
day and body weight dropped by 100
lb. in 3 weeks. Spontaneous abortions are
commonly associated with the disease.
Deaths associated with BGT usualiv
are caused by secondary effects, such as
pneumonia, animals falling in stock
ponds or bog holes and drowning, or
from dehydration as weakened, uncoor-
dinated cattle are unable to get to water.
Animals recover readily when removed
from toxic pastures or hay and placed in
feedlots on grain or non-bermudagrass
forages. Research at Louisiana State Uni-
versity, and later at Auburn, indicated
that only cattle are affected, since toxic
hay had no effect on 
rats, guinea pigs,
rabbits, or chickens. BGT was not con-
tagious, nor was it caused by pesticides,
high nitrates, mineral imbalances, selen-
ium and molybdenum toxicities, or grass
tetanv. Toxic hav clipped in October re-
mained toxic 4 months later, even after
being held at 120) (C for an hour. Ani-
mals showed symptoms in 36 hours, and
s mlptOmS renainled for a long period of
time before death occurred; recovery oc-
curiired in 2 to 12 days after removal of
toxic hay. The toxic factor was not pres-
ent in milk.
A similar nervous disturbance was ob-
served in 1950 in east-central Oklahoma.
Symptoms were similar to those de-
scribed in Louisiana 20 years later. No
ergot was detected on the bermudagrass.
In 1953, a paralysis of cattle resembling
BGT, but designated "downer cows" or
"lbermudagrass poisoning," occurred in
Georgia and Alabama.
In the fall of 1973, commercial Coastal
bermudagrass hay from Autauga County
was associated with toxicity and death
of several cattle that had shown tremors
or staggers symptoms. Several bales of
toxic hay were brought to Auburn for
analysis. Twenty species of fungi were
isolated from the hay, identified, and
bioassayed for toxicity to brine shrimp
and chicken embryos, see table. Ten of
the more toxigenic fungi (rating 4-6)
were each grown on one-half bale of
sterilized bermucdagrass hay for several
weeks. The hav was dried and fed to
calves, but none of the fungi was toxi-
genic under those conditions.
In September of 1974, 40 of 50 cattle
in a pasture at the Plant Breeding Unit
near Tallassee, Alabama were afflicted
with a disease that resembled what has
been described as BGT or staggers. Once
pesticides were ruled out as the cause,
the possibility of induction by fungal
toxins was investigated. Fifty bales of
hav were made from infested areas.
Albout one-fourth bale induced tremors in
36 hours in a 350 lb. calf at Auburn.
Pelleted toxic hav and extracts were
ToxlcrrY OF FrA ISOLATED FRHOX
BRFIM\UI)AGRIASS IHAY (1973) To
BiINE S 1111I1P AND (HI(CKEN
E SiHlYos
l"nguls Brine' Egyg
Genlls shrIoip
Species
Yo
Pri-
orit\
lk rating'
D)rechslera
halodes 0 2 2 4
Cladosporian
herbarunim . 0 1 1 2
Penicillium
lanosum 2 2 1 5
Cochliobolus
spicifer 0 2 2 4
Paecilomyces
varioti .... 2 2 2 6
Cladosporium
sp. 0 2 2 4
Fusarium
lateritium .. 0 0 0 0
Cliocladium
fibriatum . 2 2 2 6
Epicoccum
purpurascens 0 1 2 3
Aspergillus
fumigatus _ 2 2 2 6
mcremionium
sp. () 2 2 4
Nlucor
sp. . t 0 0
Curvularia
lunata . 0 0 0 0
Nigrospora
sphaerica 1 2 2 5
Periconia
ininutissinma 0 0 0 0
Pithomyces
chartarum 0 0 0 0
Virgaria
nigra - 0 0 0 0
'2 - 60-100% mortality of shrimp; 1 =
20-59r%, mortality; 0 = 1-19% mortality;
about 50 brine shrimp per mnil.
"2 - 80-100; mortality of chicken em-
bryos; 1 - 41-79/,, mortality; 0 = 0-40%
mortality; 5-1) eggs and injetion ilethod.
Flungi with a priority rating of 4-6 are
bioassayed for toxicity to rats.
HOW MUCH
N FOR
GOOD SOD?
C. H. MITCHELL and RAY DICKENS
Department of Agronomy and Soils
Nitrogen rate of 0.5 lb. per 1,000 sq. ft. applied at either 2- or 4-week intervals resulted
in superior sod strength.
IFWAY AND TIFGIEEN bermudagrasses
are grown extensively for athletic turf,
lawns, and roadside erosion control in
the Southeast. Tifgreen is used on golf
course tees and greens because of its
finer texture and tolerance to low mow-
ing, while Tifway is preferred for fair-
way use. Sod producers like both be-
cause of their rapid growth rates.
Past recommendations for sod produce-
tion have called for high rates of nitro-
gen (9 lb. per 1,000 sq. ft. per year).
Increasing costs of nitrogen fertilizer,
however, demanded a new look at the
economy of such rates. Results of new
research at Auburn University Agricul-
tural Experiment Station indicate 
that
lower rates of N can be used without
sacrificing growth rate of the two ber-
mudas.
EFFECTS OF NITROGEN RATES AND
APPLICATION FREQUENCY ON TENSILE
STRENGTH OF TIFCEEN AND
TIFWAY SODS
N/1,000
sq. ft. and
app. fre-
lquency
Tensile strent
Tifgreen
1973 1974
Every 2 weeks
% lb. 29 abe* 26 ab
1 lb. 26 ed 26 ab
2 11. 23 de 25 ab
Every 4 weeks
'/ lb. 32 a
Slb. 30 ab
2 lb. 27 be
Every 8 weeks
2 1b. 27 be
29 a
27 a
25 ab
23 ab
NoN ..... 21e 21b
* Means within a column
same letter are different (P-
New Growth Factors Considered
Nitrogen recomeinralatiois formerly
were based on such factors as clipping
yield, shoot density, and general appear-
ance. Extent of root, rhizome, and stolon
development was not considered, despite
the fact that tolerance to traffic and re-
cuperative potential are improved by an
abundance of roots, rhizomes, and sto-
lons. Thus, these growth criteria repre-
sent a crucial factor in growing turfgrass
for the cut sod industry and for main-
taining sod on athletic fields and golf
courses.
Length of time to produce a dense,
high quality sod - one suited for har-
vesting or that will tolerate traffic - is
another important production factor.
Mowing heights are known to affect the
rate of sod formation by cool season
grasses, but no such 
information is 
avail-
able on hermudagrass.
N Rates, Mowing Heights Studied
Experiments over a 2-year period onl
gth of sod a Dothan 
sandy loam soil at Auburn
Tifway measured the effects of nitrogen and
1973 1974 mowing heights on sod formation by
bermudagrass. The test area was fertil-
ized (except for nitrogen) and limed ac-
49 be 39 
ab cording 
to soil test 
recommendations.
44 ed 35 abe The area 
was roto-tilled, smoothed, 
and
40 d 31 be planted in mid-June 
with 2-in. plugs on
10-in. centers.
Nitrogen and mowing treatments were
61 a 36 abc begun 1 week after planting. 
Three N
4 ab 40abc rates 
and three application 
frequencies
were included, along with mowing
heights of 1z, /4, and I in. Frequency of
45 ed 30c 
imowing was twice 
weekly. Weeds 
were
controlled with MSMA and 2,4-D or
30 e 28 c 2,4-DP. Clippings were removed at 
each
not marked 
by mowing.
-0.05). Sod formation was evaluated 
by meas-
iring tensile strength of the sod. Sod
strips (2 x 1 ft.) were harvested at '/z-in.
depth and fastened to a platform, half
of which was stationarv and half mounted
on wheels to move along a track. Ten-
sion was applied to the moveable section
until the sod strip tore apart. Amount of
tension required to tear the sod apart
was the measure of sod strength.
Tifway Stronger
Tifwav produced sod strengths 30-50%o
greater thanii Tifgreen during both years.
There were no measurable differences in
sod strength as a result of mowing
heights. Evidently both 
grasses are cap
able of forming dense sods when mowed
as low as 1 in.
Strongest sods were produced with
low rates of N, 0.5 to 1.0 lb. per 1,000
sq. ft. Fertilization at 4-week intervals
gave results equal or superior to those
obtained with 2-week frequency. Al-
though higher rates of nitrogen may pro-
duce a more pleasing appearance and
uniform establishment rate, these results
show little effect by high rates on strength
of mature sod. Likewise, continuous low
mowing during the early part of the sod
growing operation may not be necessary
to produce strong sods. Factors other
than sod strength must be considered
when developing a sod production pro-
gram, however. Of importance are effects
of mowing heights and nitrogen fertility
on weeds, appearance, diseases, and in-
sects, as well as on mechanical harvest-
ing and regrowth after harvest.
Superior sod strengths were obtained
from nitrogen rates of 0.5 lb. per 1,000
sq. ft. regardless of whether the applica-
tion interval was 2 or 4 weeks. Mowing
heights from 1/2 to I in. had little effect
on sod strength.
The Southern
Pine Beetle
L. L. HYCHE, Departmenti
of ZooLogy-EntomoLogy
E P;'
I
DEMIC (IND IONS l of 67
/andi(tiff cluc'. .-31 million board ft.' of
infested saictindibr and
1 
12 iion/i)i t'ibic
ft. of piuiicool liarvc ies(d inl 191.3. "
These (itites froitm surxvev repourts de-
scr'uili iii pairt the impact of thle latest
tixthi eak of souithierni pine bieetle (DrJ)-
t/routtonus froniui; Zirii. Ioin Alabaman
foriests. SuIch cctHiiiniC CValu-atious genl
ci ally focuis 
oi the 
ctirninertiaI 
fourext.'
H oswever, .souttherin pine beetles xxill at-
tack all Species of inatixve southiri ineh ts.
aiid tifttei infiest x aiial utriees inl iresi-
tdenitial aireas an pa Jirks s.'5peci al ly durtin ig
o)utbre tak peiodstl. [airge tirees killetd iii
these sitiiatii'is cannot be replacetd. and
Ilosse s canno tt lie lullsv as se ssed ill ci iii
iiierti a fortiiext termns.
The southerni pmie beetle ax at pest of
('timlilt'rcial foruest s 1a rec I('eixved c'(isid
ti alli ,ttcli~lill thle Ipast, ,iuit is tua -
riitlx Iiii studtiedl lx xvariotus fetleiral
aint state aii'lteit'x in cluiig Anuiin
(Ti i iersitx gicn~iIt uial Expeimeni i t Stita
thoul. Kiitxxledge ginetd tto (late pr'ovidets
in f ormiat itn hefle it r nieco giiniig beetle
actix itx aiid iii tlexeliipiig (guiiteliuies for
kiihail f orext arecas.
'T'e adult is, a cx lii uica
1
. redd~ish-
browxn i to hli .tk heetle il ou t ls iii. ]l(
I lig. I ) . A\ sinilI iieliai gilix e iii tlif
firont of the' heatd (coixpitiis iit' I"
is ii iis'hil idet'iiLiig thai acteu isti'.
Larx'ae adl ptp are cii iespiindii igl
FIG. 1. Southern pine beetle adult (malei.
ii x t Ii . (Iil i I lii'si i Iii tI(
lill)id late. it' igs ieO i
Ili c'ile(ijc \ ('iis \\xlihet c l plpi
1
-
laitn arei ix , ipiiifeat io aii resencai 
lv\
toi ntieak pronportionsi, miid large aireas
Of dl) cIiQ(1i \ Ilecalthli trees are attack 
ed.
Attacking adi ilts hi re tin 11-nLgh1 theC
ointer bairk and construct xx in 
ding
S-shaped egg tunnls or- galleries, char-
act ei stic tf this species, fi the ii 
iii ci
lbark (Fig. 2). Eggs are laid singix inl
niches at interxvals along eachi side of the
galleix . Lairvae ttiniiie axxax froti th'2
inaini gailli x excaxvati ng shoirt in(lixvidu al
gal ler ies in te icniei lbark . Pu patin take
pl1ace if)ii a iiiall cell at the( endu of cadh
I ril l gall ei x . N c\\l Iv tinmed aci IIIt
eineirge throu igh t Iie outer bairk leax iii
"biori i r id shot-si,'e' exit hides. The
life cx dc is conmpleted iii ahout :30 (lax
ainid fonr to six gei ieratixn nia octcutr
per xYeai ill Alabamia.
Soiuthierin pil icctlc actixvity begiins ill
sprig (late MIairch to late Apiril ill t~c'
Anlinil ii i iitx itiid com tfllesii ilti i
FIG. 2. Galleries of southern pine beetle in
inner bark.
teiier. Tle lbectle cix ei itei x ill 11l
staucx of (lix lopiliel it ill titheiier i l]\
of hlost tieexs. Iv ieriist cx iiiice of in-
festationu otteil i iited is the chaniige ill
tillirdtiioi (if ti cc toliage. Nceedles ill in-
I ixtetl tree's fiirst hintixilix thein ireddiishi
I(lxx ii. lIn xiiurinei cotlorl dialwiC ilax he
'x ieiit xxithini 2 to :3 xxecks lollixx ingr
,,itck. Croxx tis tlox e)\(,xx\ i I Itei Ili ti tcx
ttack~id in) late siiiici aiit fall] iiiax
I iniii gi (c'i uiitil late xxinter or earIx
spbg.Fiitliei cx itleuic of iiifcxtdtionu is
tle piresenice oif iio is xnmall xx litisli
gltihilexc of ri ii (plitchl tubes) ahtuit 1
Ill. io tlianictei , onl the( harlk at poiiits ofl
beetle eiitrx' (Fig. 1) . Thesce ai e gTell
cidal\ chairaicteiistic tif sotenii pinle
bet te attaick all(] id Ilii' 1ta ,,ileld iliel
tile tiriuik firon fx et .iiii \\ qjaore gynui'
lcxvel 11p tii the loxx ei ciroxxn.
lPiiii w xeaikeiie ictl fiindter stress il-e
higll sixceptible to attack bx siiutherin
piii' hectic ;1id( otheri pinle lbiik beft.'x.
Teesx ill poipilatied iia high use 
ai (as
ii~ ixftell ill such ciiintitiiii(fdle to inijury
iii coinitirictioin of horres, 
roiads, streets,
sidexxalks, public utility lines, and geni-
eiral aurea ui bx mn.~u To u educe tho
FIG. 3. Pitch tubes
beetle entry.
ani bark at points of
chaniices of dcilux inenuiiit of beetle iiitcx
tatiiu s, trics shotuild he kept iii a vigorouis
di ld iii iiiiiiuiu'td coiiditioii. Sonme gnide-
hunes to Itiltixx aie: if prac'tical, 
StI
1
)
1
il
xx ater to x aliabl tres dIIII 
ing (1i-ought
lieriids ixvoid iinrx to truiiks and root
xx tciii if) coinstruct ion of hii iiex, roads,
etc.; iniiiil thle Ilse 
tif lueaVx \ ur i
mieit iicar tuecs inl iiainuteinance od parks
iid icieation areas: keep prnnug of
g(cii limits tii a iiniinti. 
hut if printing
is, ie,ssil x (1(o oulix ill xx iiutcr iniiiitus,
andit axoi tiile cxce of stuadaurd pole ciih-
cis on tirunks of green fiecs its at geeral
priactice, iiuake ioutinue iinspictionsx for
xigns of heetle attack.
Iiifestatioin lbx anx one of scveida spe-
ties of pine bairk bicetles miay pri dce
xx mlptoix ill trees xtinexx at similar to
Itlose ca used lbx souither pci ine biic eetle.
Whl xx mptolis tif heetle attack appeau,
as er tain ~ tIile pri nia ii, 'p ciex responi s ilei.
It soiutherin pinie bieetle is iiixolxved, iii
specct tile area i a i etill v, dIeterine u tbI
exteint iif tile' iiifct'Stili anidt cut all] ill-
hI'xt('t trees 1)1 ii. All fellied Ia
ci ial shiolil d the I bi e in tnpt l\ remioxved
f ront it i premiiises ofi the 1broiol d ue
the biairk dexti ox et. Broodits mnay he tdc
stiox' \elld lix liiiig, if Pr actical, or spray-
iiig iinfestetd umaterial xxithi 0.5% lindtauuo
inl fuel oil. All log surfaces shiouild lie
spraxc eto ptinuit of runouuff'. FIt, oil xwill
iijuuu foliaige (if iiiaix plants and xxater
shiioltd he suibstitiitedl for iiil fi the spray
or iiupur' ofi nearbv 01riiainei tah planits
is likelx to he at problem11.
ALTERNATIVE LEASE OPTIONS
for FARMERS
H. A. CLONTS, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology
F ARM TENANCY in 1975 is attracting
attention of Alabama farmers as it did
in 1925. Leases today vary little from
those years back; yet farming today bears
little resemblance to farming in 1925.
Only a small proportion of farm op-
erators utilize a full share-tenant arrange-
ment today. The full-owner-operator class
of farmers is the largest tenure group.
However, few people realize that the
majority of farm products are produced
under a management system involving
some sort of land lease arangement.
Alabama farmers generally have lim-
ited knowledge of the effects leasing has
on net farm income. This includes op-
erators using the more popular cash lease
or the traditional share arrangements.
Farm problems: of recent years which
stem from crop and livestock prices may
also extend to the contracts under which
land use is achieved. For example, in
1974 many farmers may have paid cash
rents for land use which exceeded net
income per acre. These types of rental
contracts are fixed instruments which al-
low little or no rent variation from year
to year. Traditional crop share contracts
allow for more sharing of poor prices be-
tween landlords and tenants. However,
equity disadvantages to tenants may over-
ride gains from sharing.
Is there a better alternative for leas-
ing? Can cash rents be adjusted to allow
for price and yield variations? Many
share-lease landlords say they have al-
ready achieved this adjustment by ac-
cepting the cash value of their crop share
rather than the commodity. In part, this
is correct. If cash rents are adjusted for
price and yield variations, a quasi-share
rent arrangement results.
Differences in traditional share leases,
cash leases, and a procedure for adjust-
ing cash leases are being examined by
the Auburn University Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. Data for the tests are
from actual farm production activities on
the Auburn University owned Gilbert
Farm. This unit is being rented to a com-
mercial farmer under a proposal to ex-
amine effects of alternative lease ar-
rangements on farm income, production
efficiency, and capital equity.
During the first 5 years of the project
actual rental arrangements were cash
agreements. However, three alternative
cash plans were tested. Additional alter-
natives, such as various share plans, were
simulated using actual farm data and
traditional lease terms. During the first
2 years of operation under review, a
1-year simple cash plan was used. This
plan was followed by a 5-year compre-
hensive contract based extensively on
prevailing government cotton and feed
grain programs. After 8 years of this
plan, changes in government programs
required adjustments in the contract.
Thus, a variable cash rent plan based on
previous yields and rents and current
farm prices was initiated.
Results of the various alternatives thus
far show that on the average farm land-
lords and tenants receive more net in-
come under an equitable cash plan than
under traditional crop-share plans. Tra-
ditional livestock-share plans, which ac-
tually are 50-50 partnerships, showed no
income disparity to either party. Income
disparities under simulated crop-share
conditions were rather heavily biased
toward landlords.
The most important element under all
alternatives seemed to be the security
offered tenants under a long-term (5-
year) plan. In conjunction with a 5-year
lease, a program was initiated to reim-
burse the tenant for the undepreciated
value of any investments made during
his tenure, but remaining at the termina-
tion of the contract.
Without the certainty of time and un-
depreciated investment recovery, re-
source exploitation by both tenant and
landlord would be common. In fact, ex-
tensive data on numerous farms under
1-year cash or traditional share leases
confirm this fact. Liming, terracing,
cover crops, etc. are frequently avoided
to reduce costs in the short-run. Obvi-
ously the long-run implication of such
action is an income reduction.
A new lease alternative was employed
in 1974 and 1975 based on price and
yield variations. The extreme cotton price
fluctuations of recent years caused con-
cern about a fixed cash price each year.
The current plan is as follows:
The leasee agrees to pay cash rent on
land in cotton using the formula.
1
Average rent paid per acre of land dur-
ing a 3-year moving base period aver-
age cotton lint price per pound during
the same period X price of lint per pound
on November 15 of the respective crop
year.
Average rent base period
Average lint price for base period
pounds of lint charges as rent per acre
in following year
Pounds of lint charged as rent X mar-
ket price November 15 = cash rent per
acre.
This system has the advantage of ad-
justments for price changes. Also, land-
lords and tenants share in the crop. Thus,
a partial return to sharing is achieved,
but without traditional encumbrances.
Disadvantages include problems asso-
ciated with an absence of historical cash
rents and possibly some rental instability
during the first 2 or 8 lease years. How-
ever, setting maximum and minimum
rents can resolve these problems.
Results of the variable cash plan are
not conclusive, yet promise of a more
equitable plan is evident. In any farm
situation operators and landlords should
be alert to new procedures which will
increase equity, efficiency, and income to
both parties. Perhaps this plan can do
that for some farms.
:'Similar plans may be developed for other
crops. Also details on base years and cotton
grade must be specified.
15
Experimental plots of
peanut 
disease 
research
at the Wiregrass Substa-
tion.
C 1 Ill, I t I l It -A I) \1B WK itt (C 111
ts a rclatixeN nltexx disease ofi peatnuts
cautsedl b1 the soil-bort c mu guts ('ijliin-
dItociino cro10alas'.
Ti s inid kIious dislxease has spread stead-
ily throuighoutt the peat iut gt 055it g area
oil the Easternt States fot the past decade.
At pt cxci it it Causes substanitial x ieli
losses to girossers ill \irgitiia atud( Notrth
Cat olitia. III the field, CBI{ is readilv
recogiziaisle lby an initial pale discolora -
tioti ofleaxves itt affected1 planits, xxhicb
also hav e a xx ilted appearanice and num-
ci ots, brick-red, small, spore-producing
structures onl pegs, pods, and stems at
or near the soil line. Roots and pegs de-
celop a black tot thsat results in death of
the platit. ('BR was first idenutifiedl in
Alabama irs 1972 in peanult fields at the
Wiregrass Substation near Headland.
Since no method of control for this dis-
ease is knoxvn, experimensts we re con-
ducted at the Substation during the 1973
and 1974 seasons to evaluate vatrious soil
treatments for control. Plots of four 33-ft.
rows were established in areas heavily
infested with the paathogen. Applications
xvere made 3 wveeks before planting, at
plan~tin~g, and at blooming time. Each
treatment was replicated seven times and
plots xvere arranged in a completely ran-
domized block design. Data on dfiseaseI
incidence xvere collected 1 xveek befotre
harvxest by counting the number of i oxx
let gths (1 ft. or less) that xvere affected
1)x the disease. Yield data xwere obtainer]
from txvo center rowvs in each plot;, these~
data could not be obtained in 1973 be-
cause of adverse weather conditions.
Txvo broadspectrum materials, sodium
azide and Vapam, see table, resulted in
sign ificant r eduictions in dlisease and in-
cessinl yield, xwhlereas the fungicides
rerraclor, Ten aclor-Stiper 
X, Demosan,
atE] timtc Des BCP and Furadan
failed to reduce disease or increase yield.
Comini ations of preplatit and lXost-emer-
gel ce applications of sodium azide gave
the highest rediuction in dlisease. 
]1n 1974,
sodium azide wxas the only material that
resulted iii signtificantly higher vie
1 
Is
than the con trol wvhen it was applied
preplatit at rates higher than 36 lb. per
acre aid wh'len preplant and post-emer-
getice applications wxere combined.
Our- results indicate that few materials
are effective iii reducinig CR on pea-
huits. The only treatment xvith potetitial
for control of CI3R was sodium azide in
aI single post-emergence application at
12 lb. active per acre or possibly this
treatment combined with a preplatit ap-
plicationi at rates beloxw those used In
these exper iments.
CONTROL of CYLINDROCLADIUM
BLACK ROT of PEANUTS in Alabama
R. RODIGUEZ-KABANA and P. A. BACKMAN
Department of Botany and Microbiology
LEFFECT OF SOIL TRESArML-1i'S ON THlE INCDitliNS OF CYLINissOr LADIumx BLACK ROT
IN FLOnUNNER PEANUTS DURING THE 1973 AND 1974 SEASON
Treatment
Con trol
Sodium azidl(
Sodium azide
Sodium azile ----
Sodium sizirl
Sodium azicdc
Sodiusm azile ---
Sodium azide-----
Vapam _n _
Rate per acre Disease incidence
Preplant Plant lPost 1973 1974 Mean
Lb. Lb. Lb. No. No. No.
36
48
60
36
48
60
t0
38 gal.
3.3
2.1
1.3
0.50""
0.3""
1.0"*
1.10
Yield /
acre
Lb.
3,7.56
4,121
4,3280"
4,3)4* 
4
4,308"
4,242""
4,072
4,114
tigures represenst averages of 7 plots and those with asterisks were significantly 
(diffteett
from the control in the same columni.
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
AUBURN, ALABAMA 36830
R. Dennis Rouse, Director
PUBLICATION-Highlights of
Agricultural Research 6/75 1 OM
Penulty for Private Use, $300
0o 1875 I1975 r
m 0
-q/ /LcT5\
POSTAGE PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
AGR 101
THIRD CLASS