HIGH S S
OF AGICULTRAL 
RSEARC
VOLUME 9, NUMBER 2
ft 8~~6
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SUMMER, 1962
.3
Al
us-
Agricultural Experiment 
Station
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
i
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H-IGHLIGH-TS of
Agricultural Research
A Quarterly Report of Research
Serving All of Alabama
VOLUME 9, No. 2 SUMMER, 1962
lot5 t!
4
4 44ae . 0
MEASURING FARM EARNINGS- Reveals Degree of Success
in a Farm Operation ..
J. S. NEWMAN - STATION'S FIRST DIRECTOR - Pioneer Au-
burn Agricultural Researcher .......................
SOIL FERTILITY AND PEANUT YIELDS- Production High
while Fertility Maintained
3
4
5
STORED ROUGHAGES VS. GRAZING - Systems Compared for
Feeding Milking Dairy Cows 6
IMPROVED PROCESS FOR PICKLING PEACHES - Yields Top
Quality Commercial 
or Home Product 
7
HERBICIDES FOR SWEETPOTATOES - Promising New Her-
bicides for Weed Control Named 8
BEST ENVIRONMENT FOR BROILERS- Birds Produced at
High Temperatures Found Most Desirable 9
COMMERCIAL APPLE PRODUCTION - Promising Enterprise
for Northern Alabama Farms 10
VEGETABLE PROCESSING IN ALABAMA- Opportunities for
More Vegetable Processing in State 11
CHRYSANTHEMUMS FOR FALL PLANTING - Proper Plant-
ing and Management Procedures Outlined ..........12
LOGIC OF INCORPORATING FAMILY FARMS - Offers Hope
for Solving Many Farm Problems 13
MIGRATION OF RURAL RESIDENTS - Serious Problem in
Many Alabama Counties 14
SYSTEMIC INSECTICIDES FOR SCALE INSECTS- Reports Sys-
temic Trials for Scale Insect Control 15
NEW CONTROL FOR APPLE DISEASES- Gives Better Re-
sults with Damaging Summer Diseases 16
Of de CGtlae,4 This new laboratory in Funchess Hall permits
expanded research on food processing methods for home and indus-
try. In addition to studies that led to development of the improved
process for pickling peaches, many other food processing projects are
underway. New sweetpotato products, superior processes for jams
and jellies, methods of handling peaches for shipment, processing
and storing methods for pecans, a flame process for shelling chest-
nuts, and evaluation of varieties and breed lines for processing quali-
ties are contributions of the processing laboratory, see page 7.
E. V. SMITH
COYT WILSON ....
CHAS. F. SIMMONS
KENNETH B. Roy
E. L. McGRAW ...
R. E. STEVENSON -
Director
Associate Director
Assistant Director
Editor
. Associate Editor
-Associate Editor
Editorial Advisory Committee: COYT
WILSON; H. J. AMLING, Associate Horti-
culturist; K. M. AUTREY, Dairy Depart-
ment Head; E. A. CURL, Associate Plant
Pathologist; AND KENNETH B. ROY.
New and 7eely
PUBLICATIONS
Listed here are timely and new publications
reporting research by the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station.
Bul. 332. Management of Irrigated Cotton.
Bul. 337. Nitrogen and Moisture Require-
ments of Coastal Bermuda and Pensacola
Bahia.
Bul. 340. Vegetable Procurement by Whole-
salers in Alabama.
Bul. 341. Folded Garment Storage for South-
ern Farm Homes.
Cir. 136. Nitrogen for Dallisgrass Pastures
in the Black Belt.
Cir. 137. Producing Fence Posts from Thin-
nings.
Cir. 138. Soybeans for Oil in Alabama.
Leaf. 63. Cooler Homes from Attic Ventila-
tion.
Prog. Rept. 79. Controlling Chinch Bugs on
St. Augustine Grass Lawns.
Prog. Rept. 82. Performance of Silage Var-
ieties.
Free copies may be obtained from your
County Agent or by writing the Aubum
University Agricultural Experiment Station,
Auburn, Alabama.
Published by
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION of
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
Auburn, Alabama
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FARM EARNINGS
J. H. YEAGER, Agricultural Econorrittl
Oolt onk l to (ii l' l xix) ii 11it ill' nhit
1 
lt r it iiit ixii toi illlit,
ittit ix. I lioy di t i il li.' of ii x i iltrit'x ztt Iixls t i tx it t' rc ,1(11'
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ixi iii s \i\as t'x aci l t I tiw taut Ofi xxe i t'i proNic il t'
til orn IC S, SLgar Call , striiun, ifi 4.t
it~e iS 1 t Ctilt' ,il a ils t(iasseS, 5 t't 
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ci ttie. Amici'tian NMert hi eep(i. 
Esse'x
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poiids.
cliii Ig to (frCeli fields and croi ps 
was
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Jaimets Stanilit' N\\s mi11iii fist dlirectori
thie fil ofi I SS3. 'ht \iaaiina Lt'gisia-
Station Buys Farm
A xon i-tit. ()ii iliei aiii ttf 226 ac'res
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Wiashed,
t'tii .tiiiii\ssias a cha~illnge to le'arn swhat
( aritl c\pc'riiiitts swere t'ot test aglrictii-
\iilel oii the first Nca.r ws 15spt't ittleai'-
lug~ the ]lud auth] preparinig it fori ciilti-
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asr of'itei itt tit' \xeiitiit Stateion i ie
titti iatcmic o f C o gc' Exeim n
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tit ifsh tan icss e t posciti ass lesser
toll cIltr of9 Nisxu Soitrifor alor sci 'si
teilt St' 'ti l g it le t i i/i o it' tt'v clducteC
eyperi 1 nl N ith ion ati m aitir of ap'rt
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soil 'll ' il c ipii)U5 til p].i tit'tp t i all 
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sil of7 the iuuriiilchlegitti of- Blac'lti par-
ri lauiti i t t t'i i ut'6 fe t i ' ti i ittitl
PEANUT GROWERS have a double-bar-
reled objective - making high yields and
maintaining or increasing soil fertility.
Since peanuts are considered to be "hard
on the soil," reaching both objectives
appears difficult.
An experiment was begun at Auburn
in 1950 to determine if soil productivity
could be maintained under a cropping
system of continuous peanuts. Concrete-
walled bins 14 X 31 ft. were filled to a
depth of 6 in. with a uniformly mixed
Norfolk sandy loam soil. The 15 treat-
ments used were repeated three times.
Dixie Runner peanuts were grown the
first 6 years (1950-55) followed by a
Virginia bunch type (Ga. 119-20) dur-
ing 1956-61.
Treatment Effect
Yields and percentages of sound ma-
ture kernels produced with the different
treatments are given in the table. Treat-
ments did not affect yield for the first
3 years. However, omission of phos-
phorus and potassium (treatment 1)
and/or lime (treatment 2) caused yields
to decline rapidly after the third year.
The original soil had a pH of 5.8 and
tests showed medium levels 
of calcium,
phosphorus, and potassium. After a few
years, pH had dropped to 4.7 and cal-
cium and potassium levels were low
where no lime or fertilizer had been ap-
plied. Application of phosphorus and
potassium with lime was necessary for
continued high production.
Other practices, such as topdressing
with gypsum or basic slag and addition
of corn stalks, increased yields slightly.
Increases from certain practices, based
on yields for the last 6 years, are given
below:
Practice
PK (treatment 1 vs. 2)
Lime (2 vs. 3)
Gypsum (3 vs. 5)
Basic slag (3 vs. 4)
Corn stalks (6 vs. 13)
Winter legumes (6 vs. 15)
Increase
656
1,377
56
119
225
35
Practices that contributed to higher
yields were addition of P, K, and lime,
topdressing with an available source of
calcium, and addition of organic matter.
KEY TO TREATMENTS
Fertilizer used: (1) no fertilization: (2) PK; (3) PKL; (4) PKL-BS; (5) PKL-G; (6)
PKL-G; (7) PKL-G; (8) PL-G, K during 1950-55, no K in 1956-61; (9) PKL-G, plus
64 lb. N; (10) PKL-G, plus 2,000 lb. 0-16-8 (0-14-14 in 1956 and 1959) every 83
years; (11) PKL-GME, plus 2,000 lb. 0-16-8 every 8 years; (12) PKL-G, plus 3 tons
corn stalks every second year; (18) PKL-G, plus 6 tons corn stalks every second year;
(14) PKL-G, plus 61/4 tons green legumes annually; and (15) PKL-G, plus 121/2 tons
green legumes annually.
Rates per acre: P, 62 lb. P
2
O5 from superphosphate; K, 120 lb, K
2
0 from muriate
of potash; G, 400 lb. gypsum in 1950-56 and 500 lb. in 1957-61 dusted on when
plants began blooming; BS, 400 lb. basic slag in 1950-56 and 500 lb. in 1957-61
dusted on when plants began blooming; ME, minor elements-5 lb. Colemanite, 5
lb. manganese sulfate, 7 /2 lb. zinc sulfate, 21/2 lb. copper sulfate, and 1/2 lb. sodium
molybdate; green legumes, vetch or crimson clover; and corn stalks, dry stalks
chopped into short lengths and put on soil in fall and turned the following spring.
Methods of application: In treatments 2-5, all P
2
05 and 32 lb. K
2
0 applied in
drill 2 weeks before planting and 88 lb. K
2
0 sidedressed after plants were up; for
treatment 7, all fertilizer was applied in the drill 2 weeks before planting; and in
others (6 and 8-15) all fertilizer was broadcast before land was turned.
YIELD OF PEANUTS AND PERCENTAGE OF SOUND MATURE KERNELS FROM DIFFERENT
FERTILIZER AND OTHER PRACTICES, 1950-61
Treatment
'I
Per acre yield, average Per cent sound mature kernels, av.
number 1950-52 1953-55 1956-61 1950-52 1953-55 1956-61
Lb. Lb. Lb. Pct. Pct. Pct.
1 2,375 1,018 238 63.3 59.1 39.9
2 2.194 1,336 894 63.1 51.7 45.0
3 2,179 1,740 2,281 64.2 62.1 62.8
4 2,299 1,929 2,400 64.2 66.4 65.0
5 2,255 1,806 2,337 64.5 63.9 65.0
6 2,271 1,970 2,432 64.9 65.6 64.2
7 2,434 1,741 2,392 64.8 63.4 64.8
8 2,250 1,873 2,486 64.4 65.8 64.4
9 2,351 1,842 2,375 64.8 64.3 64.3
10 2,239 1,765 2,484 63.4 61.6 65.4
11 -- 2,211 1,739 2,446 64.4 59.7 67.2
12 -------------------- 2,591 1,867 2,608 64.9 62.9 67.0
13 2,500 2,157 2,657 64.5 65.2 66.8
14 - -2,487 1,987 2,477 64.6 66.7 66.3
15 2,657 1,776 2,467 64.5 64.5 66.5
Sod feredity atnd
PEANUT
YIELDS
D. G. STURKIE and L. E. ENSMINGER
Dept. of Agronomy and Soils
The soil test data show that fertility
of the soil was maintained or improved
over the 12 years with these practices.
As shown by production figures, there
was no decline in yield during the 12-
year period. Yields in 1961 were as large
as any made during the test period.
As would be expected, soil became
more acid from treatments 1 and 2 that
did not include liming. Where lime was
added (treatments 3-15), acidity re-
mained constant or was reduced.
Percentage of sound mature kernels
was increased by treatments that im-
proved yields. Practices that resulted in
large yields also produced high quality
nuts.
Results of the tests showed there was
no value to applying nitrogen or using
minor elements. Growing legumes ahead
of peanuts was of little or no value.
No Response to Application Methods
Method of applying fertilizer did not
affect yield or quality. Three methods
of application were tested and all were
equally effective. However, all methods
used kept seed out of direct contact
with the fertilizer, which is necessary to
prevent stand damage.
Recommended insect and disease con-
trol practices were closely followed,
which undoubtedly contributed to high
yields. Perfect stands of plants were ob-
tained in closely spaced rows - about 84
in. apart.
Results of the Auburn study show that
satisfactory yields of peanuts can be pro-
duced over a period of 12 years and at
the same time maintain fertility of the
soil. The results do not mean that higher
yields could not have been produced
with crop rotation. Effect of rotation was
not studied in the experiment reported.
Stored
ROUGHAGES
VS.
GRAZING
E. L. MAYTON
J. H. BLACKSTONE
GEORGE HAWKINS
J. A. SANDY
JOE LOTT*
STORED ROUGHAGES and grazing for
dairy cows differ little - cost-wise or pro-
duction-wise!
Price relationships between grain and
roughages usually favor roughage feed-
ing. Since cows have the capacity to con-
sume large amounts of high quality
roughage, this points out the need to
find the lowest cost method of supplying
it.
Feeding Experiment
The dairy herd at the Piedmont Sub-
station of the Auburn Agricultural Ex-
periment Station was divided into two
experimental, roughage feeding groups
during the last 3 years. One group of
cows was fed stored roughages of corn
silage and alfalfa hay. The other group
was on high quality grazing plus hay
and silage as needed. Since grain feed-
ing was used at the same rate with both
systems, the most economic level was not
determined for either. Quality grazing
was provided during as long a period
of the year as weather permitted. Small
grains and/or ryegrass and clover, Starr
millet (8 plantings), and permanent pas-
ture on a limited basis were used for
grazing by experimental cows, dry cows,
and replacement heifers. Cows in one
system were assigned to the alternate
system at the beginning of each new lac-
tation in order to minimize individual
cow differences.
Production and Costs
Total feed cost per cwt. of milk pro-
duced by the two systems was as follows:
* Substation Superintendent, Agricultural
Economist, Dairy Husbandman, Assistant
Substation Superintendent, and former As-
sistant Superintendent, respectively.
Year
1959
1960
1961
3-yr. av.
Stored
roughage
$2.09
2.42
2.64
2.41
Grazing
$1.89
2.03
2.29
2.09
Feed cost per cwt. of milk increased
each year from 1959 to 1961 for both
groups of cows. This was because of
some increased feed consumption from
one year to the next, and to increased
costs of purchased items used in the
production of feed and forages. The
average amount of feed used per cwt.
of milk during the 3-year period was as
follows:
Kind of feed
Corn silage, lb.
Alfalfa hay, lb.
Grain mixture, lb.
All grazing, days
Stored
roughage
195
35
25
0.46
Grazing
47
11
24
2.51
A total of 35 cow years was studied
for the 8-year period in each system.
Cows on the stored roughages consumed
an average of 68 lb. of silage and 11 lb.
of hay per day while in milk. They were
crossbred Holsteins, averaging 1,170 lb.
in body weight. Cows on the stored
roughages (drylot) produced an aver-
age of 10,368 lb. of 4% fat corrected
milk (FCM) on a calendar year basis,
as compared with the 11,179-1b. average
of the grazing group. Higher production
by the grazing group was the result of
starting at a higher level. On a lactation
basis, average daily milk production and
percentage persistency each 28 days was
almost identical for paired cows in each
system (see chart). Adjusting costs to
equal production levels would give a 3-
year average feed cost per cwt. of milk
produced of $2.23 for the stored rough-
age group and $2.09 for the grazing
group. The small difference in average
feed cost between groups, considered as
a 3-year average or by year to year dif-
ferences, leads to the conclusion that
either of these systems could be devel-
oped into a satisfactory program for this
herd.
On land used in this study, yields dur-
ing the last 4 years averaged: corn, 42
bu.; alfalfa hay, 1.8 tons; and corn sil-
age, 9.6 tons.
Conclusions
Individual dairymen in Alabama need
to consider three possible forage systems
- (1) a stored roughage system of all
corn silage or silage and hay; (2) a graz-
ing system supplemented when needed
with silage, or hay or both; or (3) se-
lected best combinations of the two. No
one system would be best for all dairy-
men. There is no exception to the rule,
however, that high producing cows will
consume large quantities of high quality
roughage on a year-round basis. For
cows in milk and weighing 1,200 lb.,
this means about 100 lb. of corn silage
per day (harvested weight equivalent)
for an all-silage ration; 70 lb. of silage
and 11 lb. of alfalfa hay for a combina-
tion; or about 125 to 175 lb. of good
quality green grazing per cow per day.
High producing cows in this experimen-
tal herd could not consume enough
roughage to meet their nutritive require-
ments. Therefore, grain feeding was
necessary.
Average daily milk production is for the 224 days beginning 61 days after calving. Per-
sistency is the production for each 28-day period expressed as per cent of production during
previous 28-day period. Persistency values are averages for the eight periods.
Improved process (left) results in more fruit,
less syrup per container as compared with
that of cold pack method (right).
Ies lot (Uicls i peaches tha~t viclds i
top ((1ilit\ p)rodulct t Coiill leit'ail oii
1 
lnit 
list'.
The(111 osl (1,11 (I of110 jill. I t i',o l( i
coildl pacik meiithiods are' tistil 1enei alk.
l)ortill to (II Iili) III i otoi i l pool- i Il
Auburn Research
Trui ill tllrv i(kloeil14 s Ip. dc'~eitt',
iruit ii. 11141 or ('115geri-ltii4 (II xper1111
Inll St~llio~ I .1'10 tI ltr cro l pt ll st
ture od ( 24lo- and 011 a hiw ri o
Ilirll% (Ic ila e fr ot t lip X i lldl
Coldec pr(itk io di t 12t h
frit Ir to cas tirnYo tshn
(1d1 iamtcr D!i xir It'l achesI I
61.51' s\ rupt.
Xil t it polt' itiilgte si'tl and sX e r
toItt pealds t1114111' pc11111 cI ( i111(ilfo'
s il o ti
t
.ti" \\ r ilccc
1by flIt uS 'd 11) cots1111 uied .2. 't -so
.\ Itl lodi
lirllldc
ColdI packed fruit
a 111111 (t~i a l ----- ------t )t
\ u I I II I I -t
15 kmi pir iiat II iili Xit)51
Iug Ili'Xpt'elilll iI li g X iit 12)(
ii i , till' rik i pe fruit 11 tll t 2 ill. tia
etiro- til 2(011 cli.
2.t\ PIllit sizsliiliXy isiiis of11 cm 3 1c.
:3. P-'11 p('h itt t it i it
1
' or dfipl
for I iIlil. ill I oiiliil 1 ,-; I v sot 'iliitioii
XXls ItI andlt triml.
205 1F.I.
ti'Istpoil o ii) l'I pickliiiL,- spil's, 2)
(i. Addt pl ('IMItti (nut.i (ut or WXith ]hot
sXrX p if stc'.ll t'\ 111Itt -1 11111. scid, cooik
ii-/. fill 20) 111111. itt 212 1F. cool ill ill.,
II011 1 \c Im ti is usedt co1(k 25 mill.
1 X iik 6ut X , ti. I ill 'i( .i\1111
Other Research
Froi)11 t(Ii. 1(111 H ii em iilop phhic-'ssili14
I lets p) i ili ed fro 0110 mait 01rket igrade
reI (111 1 i111,latj'iII hlIt tiIilol- ill .illos i1111
i'll Ics. ilopIlls id XX tt'i f oru iit il
ill pcillsl t il m1111 tol listiS .1 Ili') it'
kcts iiliie piii ci i li shi n 11 c511 1litmii's.
'~
ftMiActed' ;Viae44
PICKLING PEACHES
HUBERT HARRIS, Associate H'orticulturist
TABLE -2. 14,QL MED COOK[-,(; PERIOol
44
1111111M.-
The plot at left was treated
L with 
4 lb. Eptamn applied as 
a
S14-in, band following a fresh
Scuttivation soon after t ra ns-
HERBICIDES for SWEETPOTATOES
W. A. JOHNSON and HARRY AMLiNG
Department of Hlorticuture
I TIE ii'AUBEAi Oft xxxecti)(Ititt c 
itt Alat-
blil tit is dix cin ed iix er ft(' 
past fewx
\citt,, ililx~ axs it resultt itt 
IlkIli labori
itq Ii [i itl Iii it's ix tixed ill paodact 
itl.
ltou uin itt x eii t giiit seasont
aiwcs fromti $820 tti $25. 
'i'lii'it'ttrc. ati
itlu octxi hit iickie riax cihtice 
cotst ii
liii tii il xx\cVtj)OttOtCS' tatligix 
trom 88
tot sit pe acti'
Weed Control Studies
xx itt mtndi tiari aill itt'pititoig
li,iit bct. o11di tlii'fox it caciltet 
t'cai
xotit toit simi oilts iltiihic 
i putt'. lic ('i-
\c]ittix Axx i'ii itaIpiiidlhiteiiaiax1t 
Sx it a,1
wth pxik t it. ttlilt'txIV 
itter st
"tre a de i l vxiSh ititd liit 'gi 
illt 'sa
tli tit \car. itatittaix iscl circ est con-ii
tlit'teiic \\ ec reaplenlt xx'eat wth 
attl
kit it,- ihact c'ieck iathictte atix 
set-
la nts t'aill fi( thestli'.. 
on 196)
xthate et plot n\\it g Eptum atoi 
4d It).of
t iceilit of
t
~ tt at o iciacctt px th ittd
fit(cat it cc it, rutia, usret a 
(iv'~utt
fit) ' , talea.it ated prsn were pivo, ( IP 
a
4 lt. crabras itdtetititaFlord ch 
i47%
'it tlicte checksd~ pinttced the 
lcowet
8\ed l ,,elo h tde.lt16
xxerc' 927(- fot Eptitit iit 4 It). iii 0ttritr-
95% loii I),ctlicl SW fori 
it 11( d
319' fori the itutilc thieck. A unit'x 
at'
xttidt at fiii' Noth Alaitini I liiitictil
ate4 lhi N6i a ()i iit titiacpatig 
cii mtt e
tha~n thei littit clucck, xx]ill(,iDactluit 
ainid
'ilIn lit' allrc itt ci bd titi i t xi txxii 
ti
table' lix raiugs 1. 'iiitabgulxs 
aid Fluir
\\vd tilt' 10i( it ixc' wee cii itliilatjiil.
)ic'tliali at 8 lb., Eptani att 4 11). 
iiicar-
1-ltt'( ( c'\ii.pt fior puI le( ill latte 
Sct
I )p itad at " '211. i110t iciti 
pa_t td ogax C'
miti)] at ctitiitxx ill 2 tests. iiit(1lirt
(it ot 1i 2. P lx s(,\ tat itt tl xx ,i't\l ccliii 
it
ill t o It i', fa11 ir ill 1.
Use Factors
c tid e ~ ' ti i\ t . t t x t r t t p e o f' i ts oj t i , i 
l ,
tti', it iiv ii ii it i)
1
ul catitit ii'l, it iiit i
ii hdit
t 
icili of p i lt ii0t it lii ire t ii i. l isl
ilc li tut i d at iuti it xx iott l t ilttiit it .i
Research Results
iiCi ~ fi cx i lat t' l t t '4111" il it iii
tit lilt~)1 trii L f titi i sc ittitt i d " iii
itt itit t'. I ptials are Iii. perec
xxi',uri Aihillt't iiia i 'liii E iii at at
it itt Tt' 1). xxx t'ttittait'x w) iti a4
tri a (tl it,atcr sii txtix ititg 2i ilt nit
itit per acre atd 
it xitd jitdex'_
1960) 191
Early
(it) (b)
CIt
t
( I1E
FIititt 6 cEk
P itce plants 
set
4 Inc.,
4
' 12
4ta
4
8
Latte t', irix _L.ttc'
7 S .3 1tt.)) 185 7.t- 8 .:
2.5- t:3.0- .3.1) 252 1.0 t LS
415 1I:z 2.8 :,1 t 
2.5- 5.8
t196 0.0- I'S
:3 96 2.1)- 0).5 246 0.3- 0t.5
18)) 2 68
\litx 9 jitie :3
1-07 N- t:, 105 tilt- 4.t0
:399) ).4 I .))
:3t) 3. 1 t L: I t7 2.0- t.0
.328 1.5- 2.1) -
4'32 _ _ _ _ tt)6
\Iax 10 june 2_
1Iticic' (a) for cit.ligraxx aindl (b) oti Floitida pixit",. 
itt xx it'ed It) - ix i~rceedcc
I liii 'tI it.
IN FLULNCI M, HEHBICIDF O,\ TO'l AL YIELD AND WEED CONA HOl
1, atillclit" 
Lb. itutlial, 
a
hrojdcu t
Low FEED COSTS have been cited as
the main reason for the broiler industry
moving south. However, the southern
broiler industry was growing rapidly be-
fore cheap water transportation of mid-
western corn was realized.
The original cause for the industry to
migrate south was better climate that
permitted birds to be grown in cheaper
houses with less heat. Less labor was
required and labor was cheaper.
Condemnation
With the advent of broiler inspection
in 1960, the problem of condemnation
arose. Management and environment
contributed much to this new problem.
As an outcome, the concept of controlled
environments for raising broilers became
realistic. Research was begun in 1961
at the Auburn University Agricultural
Experiment Station to provide informa-
tion about the best environment for rais-
ing broilers. One year's results have not
answered the question, but they do in-
dicate the complexity of the problem.
Studies Conducted
In three studies to date, sexed Arbor
Acres strain broiler chicks have been
grown on wood shavings litter at a den-
sity of approximately one bird per sq.
ft. of floor space. All birds received 14
hours of light, about 0.5 cu. ft. of air
per minute per bird, and were subjected
to approximately 60% relative humidity.
Various constant temperatures have been
tried and controlled fluctuating tempera-
ture systems are now being investigated.
In all three completed experiments, a
group of chicks from the same hatch
were exposed to the outdoors. Except
for the 14 hours of light, which was con-
trolled, these birds were under fluctuat-
ing conditions. In this way it was pos-
sible to compare broilers raised under
controlled and Station farm conditions.
J. R. HOWES, Assistant Poultry Husbandman
WALTER GRUB, Associate Agricultural Engineer
Growth rate, feed efficiency, and dust
production were measured in the experi-
ments. The feed was removed 12 hours
before slaughter, and the experimental
birds were followed through processing
to obtain condemnation and carcass data.
Sample carcasses from each treatment
were subjected to a taste panel to eval-
uate flavor, juiciness, and tenderness.
Physical separation studies of bone, edi-
ble meat, skin, and fat, were also made
on sample birds from all environments.
Results of Tests
To date these studies have revealed
that birds grew better at lower tempera-
2.5
2.4
2.0
2.0
1.5
LBS. 60
?  
750 900 VRBL
, OF FEED
FIG. 2. The chart indicates feed efficiency
for male broilers; M in this chart indicates
lb. of feed per lb. of dressed weight; and
F indicates lb. of feed per lb. of live weight.
tures (50-60 F), but gave the 
best
feed efficiency and produced less dust at
high temperatures (85-95o F.) The birds
grown under farm conditions were inter-
mediate in most respects. Thus from the
standpoint of the producer, the best en-
vironment would depend on the costs for
feed and controlling the environment as
related to market price for finished broil-
ers. Broilers produced at the higher tem-
peratures gave the highest dressing per-
centages, least feathers and blood, and
least digestive tracts. Thus the processor
would definitely prefer birds produced
at high temperatures. Birds produced
under variable farm conditions were the
most inferior from the processing stand-
point.
From the consumer's point of view,
birds produced in any controlled environ-
ment were superior to those grown under
variable conditions. The birds grown out-
side consistently gave inferior edible
meat to bone ratios. A pound of broiler
from a controlled environment contained
more meat than its farm raised equival-
ent. Furthermore, the flavor, juiciness,
and tenderness scores favored birds
grown under controlled conditions, es-
pecially those from the high tempera-
ture rooms (85-950 F).
What then is the best environment for
raising broilers? Tentatively, it would
appear that consumers and processors
would prefer birds from high tempera-
ture systems. If this can be provided eco-
nomically, the producer would probably
favor this, too, since eventually the cus-
tomer is always right.
FIG. 3. This chart shows average blood and
feather weights expressed as percentages of
live weights of broilers on test.
Best Environment for
BROILER PRODUCTION?
FIG. 1. The above chart gives average 8-
week body weights of male and female broil-
ers grown at 60, 75, and 90' F. and for
similar birds grown under variable farm
conditions at the Auburn Station.
POOL FI
1) I) i I IlIt cd to Ilett Sport of at this \-t aietxV
Dwarfing Rootstocks
Aft .4A
iaI)fle t rees aie c eecedl to redu ce mi n-
tciiaiice alilni xarest costs. Fuirtheirmore.
havingL ti) maiintain anl orchiaid fori 6 ti) 8
ca(,-rs befloirc a croip call lbt made is a
Commercial Apple Production-
Promising Alabama Enterprise
H. J. AMLING and J. L. TURNER, Department of Horticulture
E. E. KERN, Department of Agricultural Economics
ciii Alab aima pro itlc that Ihalt of the
State xxt it aniatuiral ativanltage [for coin-
nccial apple produaction. \Not tin lx is
the climiate stiitale, but apples cail lbe
lxa rxxtecl foir inariket befcoire tho se froio
im , other apple groxxing area iii the
Nation. I)iiring the area's harxvext 
tine,
piricts are higher than at anx other time
til theexvcar.
Becauise ot Aludainas na~ttural aclviii
tiaes. alil iiiteinsive app~le research pro-
Or alin is iiii ccrxx ax bv the Auburn Acri
cultural Experimen t Statilul. Facttors that
liii ist lie collsidteed liii parifi table apple
prioduictioii iii \lalaitiii aire rectix g Il4 ia
itir tillpIlaslx ill the stilx.
Varieties Important
Sinuce Alabama is til thle siutheirn
fiii ige ioi the area adlapte cto 
i apples,
olidv cci'taiiu xaricties perforim aclitqiatel
ii id roeet coimmiircial stanidardls. F'r
be plalcedi oii thle niark-et befoire the see-
oiwl xx ck iii Septembelr. 1 'liexe reai(tre-
ilicuts liiiuit the cholict it x ali ice to
l)cluciiiiis, andc Rled Slports of' Red 
l)eli-
ciios Asx thle researclh progiresses, mo re
laintie txxxill lbe adtlitl to the reciinl
Inlie1d t~liti. rit iainicsIi
dlrawxback that prcx cots plaiitiii ofl o ge
Groiniig dxxarf appIle trees can oxvei-
colle most of the chixadx ali tages. li s-
iiigr certain clxxartiii rootstiocks, fircc size
cail bec restricted au icl crtops I ix c\(stcd( 2
to 4 x asalter plait iiig. 
Foir e xii iple,
at tree 0Ii the vxa rietx Luodi xxithi ahl litig
IX rooitstoick plaiited ill the xprilig o t
1N6( at thle Noirth Alab~amla 11(11ticiure
SliibStatitll ViC(I ' tI 2 iii. oif 3-ia. oir
ho ger fruit iii 1961 . A largyer ' icld is
expected iii 1962.
Y~ields per tie cor lit axarit ii stald-
arcl stuock aie c ni iclu Ihighe r thIiall il
dwxarfiiig io,!fstiock. lliixxcx cr, viclds per
acre. aire gei Ici ll h igh11eir whe ciitIxarfIa g
ruootstoucks arc axed. Y itlds iii iother parts
PR:CE/B.
650 
DF-ELICIOUS
x.50 -WELLINGTON
5.00
4.50 -LODI
4.00
3050 I
of te IIII ii l ii 1 (. il (ii t it i i I I.1 i I I we,
exceededc 500) fll. pecr iuc e \ ico iI\ li
III- riootstlcks \N cie iis(,(.
Production Practices
Good rctstlts x\ itli apleslt oil cklx i lI
r ootstocks rire cu cc it li i pirescribed
p~ractices. All oif floe fiiloir inog /1)iiititecs
111 lixt lhc I (tc to geflit fr s . CIi (1 x
(1) R~emove Liall bllossomis (l1ii hei
first (r~il( igSCaSi ii. Failure to do this
will iresult il n siiatixlactor v tree g41ow tli.
(2) \tIake sure thIiat thc i ci i ci ded
x arjeticx arie oil \lalliiigF IX I iiitstock, if
dlxxart trees are xx oitcl. \Iailli \711 or
\lalliiw ii4 ci ton I106 iootxtockx are uised
if xtililxx uii treeis are xxiited. Less ix
kioixxi albouit \Ialliiig \crtaii 106, 
hut
it is xx oollx aplit 1 cxixtaiit, xx Ili ix aili
datlaita i c i t t iothetrs. Noi oithci
clxxartijig iapple roiitstoicks arc xii gcxtti
loii use ili \laliaiia at priesent.
(3) Ciiiitrol of xx illl\ ali is iticcx
Saix silict \Ialliu ug Ii\ aid \VI] il( xlix
*t
1
;tilu. T his calili th be d lix iii 11ifou in
apjplicatiiils of :3 lb. ofi licptaclli pei
acrec to (tic orchard!.
(4) Eaich tiree mast lit iiiiilclict xxitli
at 4 to 6-iui, lax ir of siitall imatei al
such cias p iii c iiceizles. Tbhis ireduces soil
teli) p crati Irt aiid Iina i l us at lii ier hi cx
ot iiiiixtiire ill thic rooit tone. Poor peri
Ii malce ciil 1)e expected it trees are
iiiit imlcbcd.
( 5) I )xxait alud sccnli-dxx ii trcx mu1st
be siipploi-tedc toi prcx lilt thir 1lic
Ilotix i iix er. Ax txx ii xx , trelclis sock axs
used xx itl i 4iapes is best fi- (lxxai trees.
S(1i ni cxxart trees shoiuld 1e Icxtakced.
16) lllixcases andl i ixcects malst hc con-i
tirolled.
Oiul]\ theb esict, xxc d crainedc land
xlihoiu(1lit be selc foriii comi cical
appl oii rch ard. Elevxatecd sites are pe
ferrceI. Cross poll inationl ix i ccexxari Vfloi
produtlict ion anld los t be pr oxvidled
Pack agill 14 ii i grad iiii g of apple cxmi i t
satti sx cbhain stores c, 1bicauise thit gre atcest
toil a e xx ill pasxs throu gh tl is inark et.
5 0 5 20 25 
30 5 10 15 20 
25 30 5 10 
I5 20 25 30 
5 U
Nl J iULUY AUG SET.
HARVEST DATES
Apples recommended for Alabama sell for high prices, as shown 
here. Little market in-
formation is available on Wellington and July Delicious because of 
limited supplies, but
these varieties produce good fruit that con be expected to command 
premium prices.
PROCESSING OF FRUITS and vegetables
in the Nation is increasing.
Canned, frozen, and dried products
accounted for 49% of the consumption
of fruits and vegetables in 1958. This
compares with 88% consumed in 1947.
Also 25% of the potatoes marketed for
food in 1960 was sold in processed form,
as compared to only 14% 4 years earlier.
The outlook is for this trend to continue
even faster than population growth as
rural to urban migration continues, as
farm processing diminishes, and as de-
mands for convenience foods increase.
The people in the Southeast and in Ala-
bama are interested in whether this area
can participate in the growth and devel-
opment of the processing industry.
Local Processing
Until now vegetable processing in this
area has been relatively minor. More
than four-fifths of the total quantity pro-
duced has been for fresh market. To a
large extent, processing has been a
means of handling excess production to
bolster fresh market prices. In 1961,
however, 6,000 acres of vegetables were
grown for processing in Alabama. This
was a sharp increase over the previous
year.
Establishment of processing firms in
an area depends on availability of mar-
kets, raw supplies, and labor; transporta-
tion facilities; attitude of its citizens to-
ward development; and general living
conditions for management and workers.
Conditions are favorable in Alabama and
in the Southeast. Growing southern mar-
kets, availability of labor, excellent trans-
portation facilities, desire of citizens to
develop industrial potential, and pleasant
living conditions are realities. Also, in
Alabama, there are experienced vege-
table producers in at least four well-
defined areas of the State. In addition,
climate and soil conditions are conducive
to the production of a wide variety of
vegetables suitable for processing. An
important factor is the State's progressive
program of research and education with
regard to production and processing of
vegetables. However, relatively low
yields and variability in production and
marketing practices among many vege-
table producers are factors needing con-
tinuous attention. The competitive na-
ture of the commercial market necessi-
tates adoption .of efficient and business-
like procedures in both production and
marketing.
Studies Mode
Studies made of vegetable processing
firms in the Southeast, including Ala-
bama, indicate the unstable nature of
firms established in the past. Many small
firms came into existence between 1930
and 1950 with expectations of achieving
success in restricted supply and market
situations. The 61 firms, controlling 70
plants, studied in 1960 indicate that
those remaining in business have found
it necessary to adjust operations consid-
erably during the years. Thus, substitu-
tion, addition or dropping of products
processed was characteristic of firms
studied. Nineteen per cent of the operat-
ing plants processed fruit in the begin-
ning but later added vegetable lines.
Initially, plants primarily processed fruit,
tomatoes, okra, and sweetpotatoes. In
1960, the majority was processing only
one or two vegetable items. Some also
processed fruit, berries, pre-processei
vegetables, and specialty products. Low
volume was reported to be characteristic
of many existing firms. Variation in
volume among firms studied was from
less than 5,000 lb. of raw vegetables an-
nually to about 45 million lb. Sixty-eight
per cent of the total pounds of raw
products processed was canned and 82%
frozen. Average volume processed per
canning plant was 5.6 million lb. as com-
pared to 12.5 million lb. for freezing
plants.
Firms in the study have experienced
a significant change in procurement pat-
terns during the past 15 years. Firms
now draw on more distant areas for sup-
plies of raw product than previously. In
Alabama, almost the entire volume was
obtained within 100 miles of the plant
in 1945, whereas in 1960 about a fourth
of the volume originated 200 or more
miles from the plant. Better facilities
for maintaining quality of raw products
now make it possible for producers more
distant from plants to sell to these plants.
Procurement Practices
Procurement practices for specific
products varied considerably by type of
product. Whereas pimento peppers were
contracted for in advance almost ex-
clusively, other commodities were ob-
tained under various types of arrange-
ments. Procurement methods for all vege-
tables totaling about 476 million lb. were
as follows:
Method Per cent
Contract 86
No contract but direct from farmers 85
Brokers 20
Farmers or auction markets 1
Other 8
Total 100
As interest in development of vege-
table processing in the area continues,
there are both strong and weak factors
to be encountered. Production areas have
been moving further west where large-
scale operations have served to attract
major food organizations. However, by
applying known production and pro-
cessing techniques, producers and pro-
cessors in this area can aid in overcom
ing the problems associated with low
yields and volume and seasonality of op-
erations. Growing southern markets, and
potential resources available for develop-
ment present a challenge in the State.
County agents recently contacted
throughout Alabama reported the poten-
tial fruit and vegetable acreages in their
respective areas to be several times that
actually produced in 1961. Opportunities
exist for participating in processing dev-
elopment in this area. However, guide-
lines for development aimed at bringing
land and other resources into fuller use
are needed. These would aid in careful
planning while avoiding pitfalls encount-
ered in the past.
Editor's note: This report was based, in
part, on vegetable marketing research in pro-
gress in the Southeast under Research Pro-
ject SM-8. F. M. Williams and M. B. Allen,
Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station
have been actively engaged in research on
this project.
11
Opportunities for VEGETABLE
PROCESSING in Alabama
EDWARD E. KERN, JR., Assoc. Agricultural Economist
CHRYSANTHEMUMS
for fall planting
TOK FURUTA W. C. MARTIN, and H. P. ORR,
Department of Horticulture
THE Cillo) sA\I III \It \1, itristouritt of the
fall (,;irden, is iiii old flower with ouin-
1, rolls 
liscs. 
A x 
cl-sit 
t ill- 
Plant 
ill t 
I Ic
litildscape, the (Air\ sitilthellillill illa bc
(Fro\\11 ill it \alict\ of \\itVs Mid tralls-
plitotcd at illixtion, durilw its grox0h.
I"'XI)crilliel its mcr it period of _\('iirs at
the Allblivil (71liNersitv lit[ Irill F'x-
pcl illiclit stiltioll ]lit\ c Silo\\ 11 that gar-
dco (All-N'sillitliclillillis call I w t ri I 11.1-
plitlitcd I I u I I till' plitilts iliv ill I I c r.
Plio It s (-'I I I ill col Ititil lers are pref cl I cd
to those growl ill beds lot. fill] tralls-
plitiltiog. 0oc plailt should hc "I.o\\Il
per colitiliner till' siz(, oI it No. 1 0 lood
call (3 (It. soil capacit 
, v ) -
(:Ill * vsitlithellillill plants ill colititiocis
fit \\c1l ioto illodcril illitrilctilig practices
mid call be offered to the public throw-rh
it \ it] ict , \ of olitIcts. 'I'llcy pro\ idc illillic-
diatc color ill thc holla: laildscape, itild
IIII-Ilish plillits for flitilre flo\\ crs. 'I'llerc
;H_(1 distinct oppol t1illitics ill ill('
:Ill vsalitlicil [I [ills for sillc ill cootitillers.
Source of Plants
Nlilll Low(, firills lptvializ( ill propil-
(,;Itioll and salc of I ooted clittim's of
(1il\sailtheintlills. 'I'llc list, of tIn-w clit-
till- offer Illaliv of ist it let iak it I I t it (rcs:
I 'Flic plailts itic illscct itild ( lis(lilse
h-ce llpoli itri-k it], 1, 2 1 the plitlits are
ax itililldc whell (Icsilvd, ') ) the (rrowcl
ca I I o I Aitil I t he dcsilv( I x i I I iet it s, ( -1 ) thc
(1I"\\CF Citil obtaill the (Icsired 11111111 wl
of plants, and (5) thc (()st per plinit OF
rooted clittill(r (Illik oftcli is Icss.
(:Ill\ sailtlICIIIIIIIIS root (.itsil\ fill[]) stuill
tip clittim's. t'suillk, it :3-ill. (.1ittill(r is
Illildc. Rootilw of till. clittillas lilldcl, Inist
ill pcilt pots fillcd \\ ith soil is recoill-
Ilicoded.
Cultural Requirements
Strict attcotion to fit(, cliltill-ill reqllirc-
Ilicilts of (All.\ "alitlicillullis is llccdcd to
clisure production of (Illillit\ 
plillits. If
possible, light shiah, (Ilo illore than _)Y;
12
lvdill--tioll of sililli"lit ) should k P I(
vjdcd. Plants cilli In. 1yro\XII ill 11111
Iller sillifi(dit \\ it I lot it difficult\
I'lituill", pLults ill col Itit ilwr" ill 
1kilic
01- Cill-h .1111\ is preferred to citilici 1) .laiit-
ill(r. ( im, s1will phillt is plitced 
ill ('it d I
coWithier ill little. Af ter .1 ill\ I , more
thall oil(' plailt per (-( )l Itit it wl Illil " v be
I WC(Issill-\ t o producc the ( I( -, 
it cd ',iZ(
fit ) \ cril lot plitot.
sc\ crill so lil Ill ixti It.( 's ha\ c Invi I Ilsed
slicccssl I ill alld tilt. cl I( )I(-( depel Ids
lit] (_,ck o[I till- o\\ cr. F \pcriilwlltalk
IIIiIII\ li"Ilt \\ ci'dit Illedillols slich it,, itl of
and peat or pcrlitu ilild lw;tt llil\ 
(- bucli
used to or] o\\ cx(vflclit plailts. ( :ollstillit
fcrtili/iltioll illid I Ivywilt appliciltiolls (If
Illillor ch-Illelits it] e I it I ilv ( I ill tl leso,
I i ooI I t u i d I t I I I c I I I I I I I S.
I I I i I I I I I I I I t s o I r ("i I I I i I I I i I t It c r s 11 o I I I of
bc I ilcd ill all l( )I] it li\tlll.(,s h )I (Alr\ Sim-
tl I c I I I I I I I I . ],'I-( ) I I 1 2 5 t 5( 1 111111 c 
i s
do,"Sli aldc. Mit] I t\ pes of' org ;Illic Iliattcl.
slidl its ](,ill I I lold, Iwat ljwss It-litilkliV,
alld ()Ill s;I\\dII1t lla\c 1well lls(.(I. It 11111"t
llot bc collIpIctul.\ (h'coll 11 )oscd lot- best
rcsolts.
0 1n."illitliclillims it] c ])(,it\ \ f(.(,(I(,!.S,
t1lat is. it lot of lertili/cl is Tweded for
best orrnwth. GetieridIN )M', slycl-phos-
phate aii(I lime itre mix(d hito the soil
befolc pottim, Olle pollod of "'Illwi-phos-
p1litt'. is added to citch Mic(Abill-row fill]
I)II.) of oil Illixtill.c. Lillic 
is ildded
to siltisk little I-c(Illirelliclit" ot fit(, soil.
Chrysainthnc-mumns shown here airQ used as a
base planting for a public building.
piedi't. ilt fitst .ipptiititiii ot It ctiltit't
Management Practices
iii itt ic' ito d it. p Iitlit coniti lii it cl ii
I iv' 1(i1it I itti It. I I( ii. 1 itiI I i it a It lII Iot.
xiiit pitlii Is tl i6 itl iitt'\ tets ,' I 'tXXd It'lcl
xFildi I Ill .(, it I I 'a 111 it l Itt I( I lIt
1 
I it I t tct't'
ii ig. i itt is4to il .ut thti s' Pi t ii, shiiit''
F11111FI_ ii t ili ('lltI)SA\ [HLXRIt t
Alat-crial
Colliph'k, 
1(.Itiliz(, 
rSlIch i I, itil 8-8-8
Soditim Nitiat(, 15'
Calchilli Vtratc 15',
Potits,'iIIIII Chloride
50,,
C0111J)h tC \\iLt('I'
lolltbh '11(li it,
,1 -)0-20-.10
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I s IT LOGICAL to incorporate a family
farm? Non-farm businesses have success-
fully used the corporate structure for
many decades. Until recent years, its use
in farming was considered to be re-
stricted to large-scale, highly-capitalized
farms.
Interest in corporate farming has
grown in recent years. Many believe it
has wide use for family farms. The dean
of agriculture at the University of Cali-
fornia says "Family corporations will be
operating the family farm by 1975."1
What is a Corporation?
The corporation is an artificial being
created under State law. Its legal exis-
tence is as a fictitious person entirely
separate and distinct from those who
compose it.
To evaluate the corporate business or-
ganization, it -must be compared with
the two alternative organizations- single
proprietorship and partnership. The
single proprietorship, a business operated
on a one-owner basis, is the simplest or-
ganization and most widely used in farm-
ing. A partnership has two or more own-
ers who contribute their resources and
share in profits and losses.
To increase appreciation of the cor-
porate structure, Auburn University Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station analyzed
the business arrangement on several Ala-
bama farms. This study provides infor-
mation about some basic characteristics
of the corporate structure as they apply
to farm conditions. Such information is
needed for judging merits and limitations
of the corporate structure for an indivi-
dual farm and must be considered for
sound decision making.
1Daniel G. Aldrich, Jr., as quoted in Bet-
ter Farming Methods, Jan. 1961.
Corporate Characteristics
MANAGEMENT. Corporate decisions are
generally made in a way much different
from the single proprietorship or part-
nership. This is not necessarily true with
a family farm, because the same people
are usually at all levels in the corporation
- manager, stockholder, and director.
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS. The partner-
ship and single proprietorship can exist
without a formal legal document. This is
not true with a corporation. However,
the legal requirements of incorporating
are easily handled by a competent at-
torney. Costs of incorporating a business
vary, but $200 to $400 for an Alabama
family farm is estimated.
RAISING CAPITAL. Incorporation of the
family farm can be expected to have little
value in attracting outside investors.
However, members of the immediate
family who have left the farm may be
more willing to invest in an incorporated
farm. As far as lending policies of var-
ious loan associations are concerned, rep-
utations of the owners would be the pri-
mary consideration, rather than the act
of incorporating.
MAINTENANCE OF PRODUCTIVITY. The
past patterns of farms being allowed to
Farm productivity and efficiency may be increased through succeeding generations by cor-
porate farm organization, as shown by the solid line. This prevents traditional productivity
loss under single proprietorship as the operator becomes older (shown by dotted line).
run down with each generation need to
be remedied, as shown by the chart.
This objective can be accomplished un-
der all three forms of business arrange-
ment. The partnership and single prop-
rietorship may be more cumbersome in
accomplishing this objective than under
the corporate organization. Once a cor-
poration is properly organized, ease of
transferring corporate shares makes the
problem much simpler to solve.
LIABILITY. Liability is a major factor
with the partnership and single proprie-
torship. The corporate organization pro-
vides liability protection that is not pro-
vided by the other two arrangements.
TAXATION. Income tax differences un-
der corporate organizations have created
much interest. However, taxes for the
incorporated family farm may not differ
basically from those paid under partner-
ship or single proprietorship. Under cer-
tain conditions, which family farms us-
ually meet, the corporation may elect to
be taxed as a partnership. A partnership
files a tax return but pays no taxes. Taxes
are paid by members of the partnership
on individual earnings from the partner-
ship. As a second alternative, income of
the family corporation can be paid as
reasonable salaries to the parties in-
volved, rather than as dividends. The
double taxation feature normally assoc-
iated with corporations is eliminated by
accounting.
Helpful in Problem Solution
Although the corporate form of busi-
ness organization is not a cure-all, it ap-
pears more adapted to handling many
farm problems than the partnership or
single proprietorship. It offers a definite
possibility for meeting many of the fi-
nancial and organizational problems of
farmers.
Corporate farming does not signify
the end of the traditional family farm.
Rather, it may be a major avenue for
maintaining and increasing efficiency of
the family unit.
13
Logic of Incorporating
Family Farms
E. D. CHASTAIN and W. FRED WOODS
Department of Agricultural Economics
TABLE 1. LOCATION OF MIGRANTS FROM RURAL FAMILIES IN FOUR ALABAMA COUNTIES, 1961
Location
County migrated from
Clarke Monroe Mont-
gomery
Talla-
poosa
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Within county u20 22 20 14
Elsewhere in county 20 18 37 26
In adjacent county - 3 7 5 13
Elsewhere in Alabama 32 23 12 8
Adjacent states - 8 23 9 18
Elsewhere in United States .............. 14 6 16 18
Military service 3 1 1 3
Total
Per cent
19
23
7
21
14
14
2
MIGRATION of
RURAL RESIDENTS
JOHN M. HUIE, Assistant in Agricultural Economics
T WO-TmIRDS OF the counties in Ala-
bama lost population between 1950 and
1960. But rural population dropped in
91% of the counties.
Although many factors contributed to
this population loss, by far the most
important was the large numbers that
moved away. A net out-migration of
people can be particularly harmful to an
area if too high a percentage of those
leaving are young, highly-trained indivi-
duals. This group would represent a
greater loss of potential income and
leadership to an area than would any
other group.
In the Alabama phase of a southeast-
ern regional study now underway, a
record of out-migration of family mem-
bers was obtained. More than half of
the families interviewed reported at least
one person had left the original family
unit. Fourteen per cent reported only
one migrant, while in 18% of the famil-
ies there had been five or more.
Location of Migrants
In analyzing the degree of out-migra-
tion from Alabama counties in the study,
present location of each migrant was
determined, Table 1. Forty-two per cent
remained in their home county, 28%
lived elsewhere in the State, and 28%
(excluding military service) had moved
outside the State.
Only Montgomery County had re-
14
tained more than half (57%) of migrants
from rural families. No doubt this re-
fleets the influence of the metropolitan
and industrial area associated with the
city of Montgomery.
Characteristics of Migrants
Although the degree of migration is
important, characteristics of those leav-
ing is of equal or greater importance.
Migrants of the four counties were
equally divided between sexes. However,
a greater proportion of those leaving the
State were men (54%). Fewer than half
who remained in the county were men.
Marital status of the migrants also had
some influence on migration. The find-
ings reveal that 92% who remained in
the county were married. This compares
with 87% who lived elsewhere in the
State and 78% of those who had left the
State.
There was little age difference between
the groups. The median age of those
who remained in their home county was
33, 2 years old than that of the other
two groups.
Education Important
Education is one of the most impor-
tant characteristics of migrants that af-
fects an area's economy. Of those re-
maining in the county, 35% had an
eighth grade education or less. Twenty-
four per cent of those living elsewhere
in the State and 20% who had left the
State received less than 9 years of school-
ing. Less than a third of those who com-
pleted high school or more remained in
their home county; 34% of this group
left the State.
Only 5% of those living in their home
counties received any education beyond
high school. Some training beyond high
school was reported for 15% of those
elsewhere in the State and 12% who left
the State. Of those who received a col-
lege education (16 years or more of
schooling), only 15% remained in their
home county, 23% lived elsewhere in the
State, and half moved out of the State.
.Employment Opportunities Needed
These findings are indicative of condi-
tions in many low-income areas. Employ-
ment opportunities that are available are
primarily jobs that require little formal
education. In previous studies it was
found that forestry and related work,
manual labor, and factory work ranked
high as employment possibilities for Ala-
bama laborers in low-inoome counties.
1
Most of these were relatively low-income
jobs. Persons who have spent time, ef-
fort, and money for an education will
not remain in an area when better op-
portunities are available elsewhere.
Out-migration of the better trained
people represents one of the basic prob-
lems that low-income counties and states
must overcome to increase income levels
of the area. One of the best ways to
achieve this objective is to develop em-
ployment possibilities within an area that
will attract and hold highly trained indi-
viduals at income levels comparable with
those in other areas.
1 Surveys of physical and human resources
in Autauga, Bibb, Coosa, and Elmore coun-
ties.
TABLE 2. EDUCATION OF RURAL MIGRANTS
FROM FOUR ALABAMA COUNTIES, BY
PLACE OF RESIDENCE 1961
Location .of migrants
Years of Else-
education In where Out of
county in State State
Pet. Pct. Pct.
None 0 1 0
1-3 1 0 1
4 2 2 4
5-7 21 12 6
8 11 9 9
9-11 28 19 22
12 32 42 46
13-15 3 11 3
16 or more ...... 2 4 9
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS are under con-
stant attack by a variety of insect pests.
The worst offenders of the Alabama state
flower - the camellia- are scale insects.
The tea scale, Fiorina theae Green, is
probably the most important of several
species that attack camellia and other
ornamental plants. Tea scale can be re-
cognized by white, cottony material se-
creted by scales on the underside of
leaves. The upper sides of leaves have
a yellow mottled appearance. The insects
suck sap from the leaves, thereby re-
ducing vitality of plants. Severe infesta-
tions will ultimately cause defoliation.
Systemics Provide Control
Systemic insecticides provide excellent
control of sap-sucking insects. This type
of insecticide is absorbed by the plant,
becomes a part of the sap, and kills the
feeding insects. Tests at the Auburn Uni-
versity Agricultural Experiment Station
have shown the effectiveness of certain
systemic insecticides against a variety
of insects on ornamental plants (High-
lights, Vol. 2 (1), 1955).
Subsequent research has substantiated
that systemic insecticides are excellent
for control of scales and other insect
pests and that additional insecticides and
methods of application may be used.
Results are presented in the table. From
these data it is evident that single appli-
cations of phorate at 20 lb. per acre (200
lb. of 10% granules) and dimethoate at
0.5 lb. (1 pt. of 4-lb. per gal. emulsifi-
able concentrate) per 100 gal. of water
resulted in control of tea scale on potted
sasanquas for the entire season.
Recommended Systemics
The following systemic insecticides
are recommended for control of indi-
cated insects on ornamental plants based
on research in Alabama and other states:
1. Demeton (Systox) is available only
as a 2-lb.-per-gal. emulsifiable concen-
trate. Spray plants with 11/ fl. oz. of the
concentrate to 5 gal. of water. Demeton
controls scale, spider mites, thrips, leaf-
hoppers, whitefly, aphids, mealybugs,
and certain leaf miners.
2. Dimethoate (Cygon) is available
only as a 4-lb.-per-gal. emulsifiable con-
used only as a soil treatment. For single
stem plants, such as camellia, use 4 oz.
of 10% granules for each inch of trunk
diameter. Sprea d granules uniformly
from the trunk to the drip line on all
sides, work into the soil, and water
thoroughly. On bushy shrubs, such as
azalea, use 1 oz. of 10% granules per
5 sq. ft. of area covered by the plant.
Phorate controls spider mites, thrips,
Systemic Insecticides
for scale insects
W. G. EDEN, Entomologist
R. L. SELF, Plant Pathologist
centrate. Spray plants with 1 fl. oz. of
the concentrate in 5 gal. of water. As a
soil drench, use 1 fl. oz. of the concen-
trate per gallon of water per plant for
plants up to 6 ft. tall; increase propor-
tionately for larger plants. Dimethoate
controls the same pests as listed for dem-
eton.
3. Phorate (Thimet) is available pri-
marily as 10% granules. It is therefore
TEA SCALE POPULATIONS ON SMALL SASANQUA FOLLOWING VARIOUS
INSECTICIDAL TREATMENTS, SPRING HILL, 1961
Treatment'
Untreated check
Phorate, 5 lb. per acre
Phorate, 10 lb. per acre
Phorate, 20 lb. per acre
Phorate, 40 lb. per acre
Dimethoate, 0.25 lb./100 gal.
Dimethoate, 0.5 lb./100 gal.
Dimethoate, 1.0 lb./100 gal.
Dimethoate, 2.0 lb./100 gal.........
AC 43073, 0.5 lb./100 gal.
Zectran, 1.0 lb./100 gal.
SD 3562, 0.5 lb./100 gal.
NIA 5767, 1.0 lb./100 gal.
No. scales per cm by dates
2
4/20 5/26
1.0 18.9
0.5 27.8
0.9 21.9
0.4 5.3
12.5 1.7
9.8 0.8
28.1 2.1
40.9 1.0
21.3 1.2
34.1 1.5
16.5 8.8
1.1 10.3
26.0 34.8
6/22
15.8
3.9
0.9
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.3
2.5
3.4
9.2
15.4
8/3
17.9
16.1
2.8
0.0
0.3
1.9
1.1
0.0
0.0
9.6
5.9
4.5
13.6
9/1
69.3
28.4
83.9
0.0
0.0
3.1
0.1
0.5
0.0
8.5
18.6
13.6
34.8
aphids, whiteflies, leafhoppers, mealy-
bugs, and certain leaf miners. It also
controls scale insects on potted plants.
Further research is necessary before pho-
rate can be recommended for scale in-
sect control on plants growing freely in
the soil.
4. Di-Syston is available only as 2, 5,
and 10% granules. Therefore, it is used
only as a soil treatment. Use 5% Di-
Syston at twice the rate and in the same
manner as recommended for 10% pho-
rate. Except for scale insects, Di-Syston
is recommended for control of same in-
sect pests as phorate.
When and How to Apply
Systemic insecticides may be applied
at any time during the year. However,
for greatest effectiveness they should be
applied when the plant is making a new
flush of growth in the spring. At that
time the plant sap is flowing at a maxi-
mum and uptake of the systemic is rapid.
Soil treatments are as effective as foliage
sprays, but require a longer time to be-
come effective.
All of the systemic insecticides given
are highly toxic. Use utmost precautions
when applying these materials.
15
'Phorate was applied to the soil as 10% granules; Dimethoate, AC 43073, Zectran, and
SD 3562 were applied as emulsifiable concentrate sprays; NIA 5767 was applied as wet-
table powder spray.
SCounts made on April 20 were before treatments were applied.
ieefA cntacr4
APPLE DISEA.SES
URBAN L. DIENER, Assoc. Plant Pathologist
tion's North Alabama Horticulture Sub-
station, Cullman. Note the high degree
of control of apple scab on fruit sprayed
with Cyprex-Phaltan treatment, because
of the Cyprex, as compared with the un-
sprayed fruit. This combination, because
of the Phaltan, gave outstanding control
of sooty blotch, flyspeck, and bitter rot
- the most important summer diseases
of apples here.
The higher level of control obtained
under the more severe disease conditions,
in 1961 is credited to better timing of
applications during the season and better
coverage from use of an airblast type
sprayer. In 1960 it required 3 men 8
hours to spray the experimental orchards
using the old conventional equipment.
Last year it took 1 man 4 hours using
the new sprayer.
With the combination treatment of
Cyprex and Phaltan, Cyprex was applied
A NEW FUNGICIDE now makes it pos-
sible for Alabama apple growers to ob-
tain a higher degree of control of sum-
mer diseases than heretofore.
The new compound, Phaltan, has only
been cleared recently by the U.S. Pure
Food and Drug Administration for use
on apples with a residue tolerance of 50
parts per million. Chemically, it is closely
related to captan, the recommended
fruit fungicide for a number of years. It
is nearly as safe as captan.
In experiments by Auburn Agricultural
Experiment Station and by the Georgia
and North Carolina Stations, the new
fungicide has given superior control of
sooty blotch, flyspeck, bitter rot, black
rot, and Botryosphaeria rot of apples.
Phaltan can be applied from calyx and
first cover at even as much as 14-day
intervals until harvest. It has longer ef-
fectiveness than captan, which allows
a greater interval between applications
and a reduction in total number of sprays
in a season. Phaltan is applied at a rate
of 2 lb. of 50W per 100 gal. of spray.
Although not as new as Phaltan, Cy-
prex (dodine) has come into wide use
on apples and pecans in the last few
years. It has a residue tolerance of 7
parts per million. It is outstanding in
controlling apple scab. However, it is not
effective against most other apple dis-
eases. It is known for its ability to check
apple scab even after the disease has
become established. Cyprex is applied
at a 1/2-lb. rate as a protective measure
and at 3/ to 1 lb. per 100 gal. to eradi-
cate or check spread of the apple scab
fungus from leaf to leaf and from leaf
to fruit.
The table summarizes the results of 2
years' experiments at the Auburn Sta-
FREE Bulletin or Report of Progress
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
AUBURN UNIVERSITY
E. V. Smith, Director
Auburn, Alabama
Permit No. 1132-5/62-1IOM
IIf\/
from pre-pink through the first cover,
while Phaltan sprays were begun with
the calyx or first cover. .In severe scab
years, Cyprex (1/4- to -lb.rat) can be
continued for- several additional cover
sprays, even though Phaltan is fairly ef-
fective against scab. Phaltan -is applied
after bloom because it may injure tender
new growth. Occasionally, it causes
minor damage from the calyx .,applica-
tion.
Captan has been the standard all-pur-
pose fruit fungicide for several years.
It provides good control of scab and the
summer fruit rots and spots when ap-
plied on a weekly basis. However, under
severe disease conditions, Cyprex has
been observed to be superior in scab
control and Phaltan superior for control
of summer diseases, especially when ap-
plied at 10- to 14-day intervals.
FUNGICIDAL CONTROL OF DISEASES OF RED
DELICIOUS APPLES IN ALABAMA As
MEASURED IN PER CENT OF
DISEASED FRUIT
Fungicidal treatment
Disease Check' Captan Cyprex-
Phaltan
Pct. diseased fru't
Flyspeck and
sooty blotch
1960-------- 80.7 51.3 13.3
1961-------- 96.5 0.8 3.1
Apple scab
1960sca------- 9.7 0.4 0.4
1961-------- 97.6 17.8 7.7
Bitter rot
1960------- 5.5 6.4 3.8
1961 ... 1.5 0.3
SUnsprayed.
2 Low incidence of bitter rot with no di-
seased fruit on check trees.
PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE TO AVOID
PAYMENT OF POSTAGE, $300
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MATTER
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