SUMMER 1959
of
AICULTURALEXPERIMENT 
STATION YSTEM
ofLthe
ALABAMA PLYTECHNICANSTITUTE
A Quart'erlyReport 
o~f Reseawllh
Serv'ing All of Alabama
47
77"
... ...................
. ...... .............. .
AGRICUL 
UPjj---AL RESEA
HIGHLIGHTS of
Agricultural Research
VOLUME 6, No. 2 SUMMER, 1959
OPPORTUNITIES FOR FARM PROFIT- Full Employment
and Business Volume Important Factors 3
RADIOACTIVE INSECTS - Tells How Radioactive Materi-
als Are Used in Insect Research. 4
DIVIDED FERTILIZE APPLICATIONS - Can Give Tre-
mendous Vegetable Yield Increase 5
TIME AND COST OF CLEARING LAND- Gives Results of
1958 Tests with Different Machines - 6
IIARVESTING AND I)RYING COHN - Makes A Case for
Early Gathering and Artificial Drying 7
DAIRY, A WVAY OF BUILDING FARM BUSINESS - Reports
Operation of 195-Acre Cotton-Dairy Farm 
8-9
NEED FOR WATER-SOLUBLE PHOSPIHORUS- Relates How
Solubility Affects Crops 10
FERTILIZER USE BY FARMERS- Reports Amounts Used
on Alabamna Farms... 1 1
INCOME OPPORTUNITIES F1RO0M CONTRACT EGGS - Points
Out Chances for Added Income 12
WHITE CLOVER ROBBED - Covers Research on Damage
Done by Soil Organism ------- I---------- 13
VEGETABLE VAlRIETIES DEVELOPED - Results of Years of
Vegetable Breeding Researchl Given .14
BLOOD GRoUPING - An Impolrtant Aid in Research on
A nim al Breeding --- --------------------- 15
NEMATODE CONTJIOL NIM EASURIES- NMetlods Given for
Use by Average Farmer 16
Published by
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT
STATION of the
ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE
Auburn, Alabama
E. V. SMITH----------------- Director
COYT ,VILSON ...... Associate Director
CHAs. F. SIrsON-s Assistant Director
KENNETH B. BRoy ..............Editor
E. L. McGRAW Associate Editor
R. E. STEVENSON------ Assistant Editor
Editorial Advisory Cornrnittee: COYT
WILSON; E. A. Cui, Associate Plant Pa-
thologist; W. CG. EDEN, Entomologist; T.
E. COmLrExY, Associate Agricultutral Engi-
i('.r; ANI) KENNETH B. BRoy.
Zeew ad 7Tely
PUBLICATIONS
Listed here are timely and new publications
reporting research by the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station.
Bulletin 314. Marketing Truck Crops in
Alabaia presents opportunities for devel-
oping truck crop markets and discusses
problemlns in development.
Circular 128. Livestock Market News
Situation in Alabama covers sources, ineth-
ols of presentation, and use of livestock
market news.
Leaflet (i61. Sources and Rates of Nitrogen
for Strawberries gives results on effccts of
different nitrogen naterials on strawberry
yields.
(;rain Sorghum Variety Report covers
1958 vaiety testing and gives those recon-
mended for 1959 planting.
"Iree copies n1ay be obtained froml your
County Agent or by writing the API Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala.
O PPOnTUNITIES for greater profits are
present on many Alabana 
farms!
Though prices 
and productiol 
rates
have both I received deserved emphasis,
atteintion to other factors affecting prof-
its can also mean greater income.
A recent state-wide 
farm manage-
ment study disclosed that under e-
ployient (poor labor efficiencv) aid
too little to sell (lo\v business volume
are two factors needing attention (
tnHiy farms.
T'his .management study by the API
Agricultural Experiment 
Station is
based on interviews with 252 Alabama
farm familics cooperating in Farm aid
Home Development activities in 1957
and on their farm business records.
About 50% of the operators produced
so little farm income that they were
unable to pay themselves for their own
labor and management. In fact, they
were in the "red" after taking out all
costs. Conmmonly called operator's la-
br incotne," this measure reflects the
retttit to the opeiator for his labor and
management after subtracting froni
gross cash and inventory receipts all
cash expenses, value of unpaid family
labor, and interest on the money he has
invested. Some farmers do not consider
capital investment as an expense itetm.
Yet there are other uses for such capi-
tal; therefore, to itclude this as an
expense item is logical and imlportant.
Volume of Business
The volume of business on the farms
studied was measured by calculating
-500 ........
t-1000 ...*.... In the "red'
-20001 1
0- 200- 400- 
600- 800 a
200 400 600 800 OVER
Volume of business-productive man work units
Fig. 1. For farms included in thehstudy,
operators' labor incomes were -higher on
those farms with greater volumes of busi-
ness, as shown in above chart.
the man days of work required for all
crop 01n( livXestock enterprises on the.
individual farms under conditions con-
sidered typical. These man days of
work are referred to as prodtctive man
(Cork units. They represent the work
doneI in one da) by an individual under
typical. or )specified conditions. Total
work units for various productive enter-
prises are an indicator of the volume of
ht siness or number of productive work
days on the farm in a year.
The number of productive man work
units on these fartrs ranged from 82 to
3,711. Productive work units on about
30% of the farms fell below the num-
ber considered necessary for one man
to be fullV td efficiently employed fot
a ear. It is pointed out that a similar
spread i mechatization occurred
On many of the farms, the enter-
pises were not big enough to keep a
man btusy the year 'routind. Nor vere
land and other resources fully utilized.
Of farms producing cotton, 30% had
less than 10 acres in the crop, and 80%
had 25 acres or less. About 30% of
the dairy farms had fewer than 10 dairy
cows, and there were les than 30 beef
cows per farm on 70% of the fartms
producing slaughter calves.
Of the farmIs studiedl, it vas lfound
that as volute of ,l)tsittess 
itcreasedl
the retutttIs to the operator for his labor
and iatagetett increased, Fi. 
1.
Labor Efficiency
1,111 emlll ovi-liI , ()I-1.11m 
]. ( ficie icV,
Wits ttteattir('(l yI' dividing the total
produictive man witork units by the jmnw
her of ltlh-time men etjnployed 
(i rtt
quivle ts)tt 1k itig t Iteinr o 
ttu died.
One man wmrking hill time or 
two v()men
Operators br JnR dMeJi
2500
_0 00 ..-..
500 In he "block
logo
500
ef~~eiie-100 in to redlrci~cI~
-1500
an ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ h red"ao o:thevl~r~
-2500 -
0 0- 
o00 200- 
300- 400 
a
100 2 00 300 400 OVER
Labor efficiency
(productive ron work units per mon equivalent)
Fig. 2. The chart shows that for the forms
included in the study operators' labor in-
comes were higher on those forms with
greater labor efficiency.
\vorking a h f year each were consid-
ee to Ibe one man equivalent. The
gi eater the numlber of productive work
units per mon equivalent, the greater
was the labor 
efficiency.
TIhetre wetre wide variations 
in pro-
(luctive work units per man equivalent
ott the farms studied. On 10)% of the
I ants mnaking poorest use (of labor, the
t~nlmer of lprodutctive wxotk 
uinits per
1101 equivalet t averaged 83. In con-
I ad, the average was 
535 uttits per
nai on the 10% of farms using labor
tuost efficiently. It was found that as
labIot efiinyieeased, operator's
Ia 1) i omLe itlCreatsed, Fig. 2.
IFrott tesults of this sttuly, it is eonl-
('htaleCI that business voltttte and full
at L jpro( tct ive use of labor (101)01
I'ffiL'i('tcX) ate tmajotr factors to) be con-
siclered htt Itofi talble latnn oIperations.
OPPORTUNITIES
JOHN E. LEG, JR. and G. D. CHASTAIN
Department of Agricultural Economics
Slait consumed bythe aits. Whether mi-
S. gration of ants occurs from one mound
to another is an additional aspect of
the research project.
Resistance to Insecticides
The boll weevil is not resistant to the
insecticides recommended in Alabama
for the control of this cotton pest. How-
ever, in other southern states boll wee-
vil resistance is a reality. The nature of
resistance is currently being investigated
at Auburn, and this study is greatly
A laboratory technician is shown applying aided by using radioisotopes. 
For ex-
an insecticide to a DDT-resistant housefly. ample, DDT, 
labeled with carbon-14,
The insect is examined at intervals of time at ab
to determine why the insecticide is ineffec- was found to be absorbed poorly by
tive in killing the fly. both non-resistant and resistant boll
RADIOACTIVE INSECTS?
WAYNE ARTI-IUR, Assistant Entomologist
RADIOACTIVE fire ants and boll wee-
vils may not be headline makers like
atomic explosions and "fall 
out." But,
more important, they may lead to im-
portant discoveries for better and safer
insect controls.
The API Agricultural Experiment
Station is using radioisotopes as a tool
in its search for improved materials to
combat insect pests, for answers to
problems of insect resistance to insecti-
cides, and for determining insecticidal
residues on food crops to safeguard
public health.
Imported Fire Ant
The fire ant is receiving its share of
attention at the API Station with respect
to radiological research techniques.
The food habits, ecology, and control
of the fire ant are easier to study by
incorporating radioisotopes 
into the
food or poison baits of the ants. Even
the amount of food eaten by each form,
of the fire ant, such as soldier, queen,
or various workers, can be determined
by using radioisotopes. The best poi-
son bait to use in fire ant control pro-
grams may hinge upon how well the
ants like the bait. This is currently
being studied by using radioisotopes in
baits and determining the quantity of
weevils. However, the resistant weevils
throw off the poisonous effects of the
absorbed DDT (detoxify) more quickly
than did the non-resistant weevils. Ad-
dition of toxaphene to the DDT caused
greater penetration.
Radioactive DDT has been used on
resistant and susceptible houseflies to
study its absorption, distribution, and
detoxification rates. The nature of re-
sistance in the boll weevil appears to
be different from that in the housefly.
The causes of resistance and how to
develop susceptibility in resistant in-
sects are still unknown. Radioisotopes
will aid greatly in solving these prob-
lemns.
Insecticidal Residues
Insecticidal residues on edible crops
and in animal products are a public
health hazard. Recently, Federal laws
have been enacted that establish the
maximum amount of each insecticide
allowed in or on foods. By making an
insecticide radioactive, the quantities
of insecticidal residues on edible prod-
uce are easily and accurately deter-
mined. Such studies have been done
with 5 radioactive insecticides during
the past year. Residues can be detected
by radiotracer techniques whereas they
cannot lbe detected by the best heliei-
cal analyses. Residues are as easily de-
termined in meat, milk, and eggs as on
plants. Often radioanalyses are made
when chemical analyses for insecticides
have not been developed.
Safer Insecticides
Radioisotopes may make it possible
to develop highly effective insecticides
that are non-toxic to man and livestock.
Research at Auburn with radioactive
insecticides has shown that mammals
are not poisoned with some insecticides
at dosages required to kill certain in-
sects, since mammals can throw off
effects of the materials more rapidly
than insects. As many as 16 different
radioactive materials have been isolated
from mammals that were treated with
a single radioactive insecticide, whereas
the insecticide remained virtually un-
changed in the insects. To protect the
public from the indiscriminate use of
insecticides, the Federal Food and Drug
Administration requires a complete
evaluation of each material in mam-
mals, plants, and insects. All of these
factors could not be studied without
radioisotopes.
Insect Habits Studied
Many insects have been "tagged"
with a non-toxic radioactive chemical
to study their migratory habits, flight
patterns, food sources, and movement
under natural conditions. The more
the entomologist learns about the biol-
ogy and ecology of insects, the easier
it is to plan efficient pest control pro-
gramns.
Screwworm Irradiation
Screwworm research by several south-
ern states and USDA makes use of ir-
radiation. The male screwworm flies
are reared in large numbers, made ster-
ile and then released. Female flies mate
only once and chances of mating with
a sterile male are increased many 
times
when irradiated males are released.
Eggs laid by the females are infertile.
Thus, the native population of screw-
worms is reduced. Such techniques are
also being used experimentally to eradi-
cate mosquitoes and other insects.
The use of radioisotopes and irradia-
tion techniques in entomological re-
search is in its infancy, and undoubt-
edly many new and improved methods
will be developed to aid the entomolo-
gist in his never-ending fight against
destructive insects.
Plots in foreground above show, left to
Pright, one fertilizer application 
to potatoes
sandy clay, three-applications to Chester-
, ,field sandy 
loam and three to Cecil sandy
dclay.
VEGETABLE YIELDS
L. M. WARE and W. A. JOHNSON
Department of Horticulture
D IVIDED applications of fertilizer can
increase yields of vegetable crops by
5 to 6 times.
Yields of many commonly grown
vegetables are much lower in the South
than in other sections of the country.
Research at the API Agricultural Ex-
periment Station has shown that a com-
bination of good agricultural practices
including the application of ample plant
food will increase crop yields 3, 5, or
even 10 times.
Divided Fertilizer Applications
On certain soils in some years, di-
viding the same amount of fertilizer
has increased yields 2 to 6 times. The
greatest increases from divided appli-
cations have been obtained on light
soils during the spring in years of heavy
rains.
Results of a 5-year study with spring
and fall crops grown on a light sandy
loam soil are given in Table 1. In the
spring, yields of beets were increased
174%, carrots 78%, and mustard 147%
by adding the same amount of fertilizer
in four applications rather than one. In
TABLE 1. EFFECT OF DIVIDED APPLICATIONS
IN SrINGc AND FALL ON VEGETABLE
Ciiops, 5-YEAi Av.
Crops
Spring Fall
Beets Carrots Mus- Mus-
tard tard
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
1 app. 3,944 9,899 5,211 22,710
4 app. 10,790 17,641 12,879 23,209
the fall, there was little difference in
the yield of mustard from single and
divided applications. The fertilizer ap-
plications in both comparisons supplied
90 lb. of N, 120 lb. of PO0
5
, and 60
lb. of K,,O per acre. A single applica-
tion of 12 tons of stable manure per
acre was used with each treatment.
Soil and Rainfall Important
Rainfall affected increases resulting
from dividing fertilizer applications,
Table 2. In 1952, a year of average
rainfall, by dividing a 2,500 lb. rate
to potatoes on a loamy sand soil yields
were increased 91%; in 1954, a year
TABLE 2. EFFECT OF DIVIDED APPLICATIONS
ON YIELD OF POTATOES ON LIGHT SOIL
IN YEARS OF DIFFERENT RAINFALL
Fert. No. 
Yield of No. 
1/A. Av
rate app. 1952 
1953 1954.
Bu. Bu. Bu. Bu.
1,500 1 92 17 160 90
1,500 3 188 80 148 139
2,000 1 97 17 165 93
2,000 3 230 110 205 182
2,500 1 122 20 188 110
2,500 3 233 127 262 207
of unusually high rainfall, 535%, and
in 1954, the driest year on record at
Auburn, only 39%. The same amount
of fertilizer was applied in one and
three equal applications. In both com-
parisons, at the 2,500-lb. rate, 100 lb.
of N, 250 lb. of P
2
O, and 175 lb). of
K.,O per acre were added.
Extent to which soil type influenced
the effects of dividing fertilizer appli-
cation in seasons of different rainfall is
sandy loam and relatively heavy sandy
clay. In 1953, a year of heavy rainfall,
yield of potatoes on the light soil was
increased 297% by dividing the 
appli-
cation, whereas it was increased 
only
TABLE 3. EFFECT OF DIVIDED APPLICATIONS
ON YIELD OF POTATOES ON DIFFERENT
SOILS IN YEARS OF hIGH. AND
Low RAINFALL
Light soil Heavy soil
1 app. 3 app. 1 app. 
3 app.
Bn. Bti. Be. Bu.
1953 57 226 227 259
1954 237 300 232 296
14% on heavy soil. In 1954, a year of
light rainfall, increases from divided
applications were 27% on light soil and
28% on heavy soil. Fertilizer applica-
tions included 120 lb. N, 160 lb. P
2
0
5
,
and 80 lb. K.,O.
Response was obtained by adding
N, P, and K, Table 4. Yields of No. 1
potatoes over a 3-year period were 
in-
creased 58 bu. by dividing the appli-
cation of N, 31 bu. from dividing the
K, and 28 bu. by dividing the P. The
check plot received 60 lb. N, 150 11)b.
PO, and 105 lb. KO. The additional
applications included 40 lb. N, 100 lb.
PsO, and 70 lb. K,
2
0.
These results show that greater in-
creases in yield are obtained from
adding an application on light soils in
years of higlh rainfall. Increases are
greatest from (1)N, (2) K, and (3) P.
TABLE 4. EFFECT ON YIELD OF POTATOES
FROnI SIDE APPLICATIONS 
OF NITROGEN,
POTASH, AND PHOSPHORUS, 3-YEAR Av.
Check + N + NK + NPK
13u. 13Bu. Bu. Bu.
90 148 179 207
TIME aed COST of
cearitg land
C. H. STOKES, Associate Agricultural Engineer
J. H. YEAGER, Agricultural Economist
LAND CLEARING)C b)y hand metliods is
hard work and takes a lot of time. But,
it doesn't have to be done that way.
With machines now available, the job
can be done with a minimum of labor
and at reasonable cost.
There are many acres of land in Ala-
bama covered with poor quality or u -
desirable species of trees that yield
almost no income. Much of this land
would be productive if cleared. Own-
ers of such land need to know how
much it will cost to clear. Such infor-
mation is necessary to determine if
future income from the land wvill jus-
tify the cost of clearing.
Cost Study Conducted
To study the cost of elearing, a test
wvas carried out during October and
November, 1958, in southwestern Cher-
okee County. A bulldozer and a KG
bladel (see photos) were each used on
D-6, D-7, and D-8 crawler tractors.
Twelve 2-acre plots were cleared -
2
w\vith each size tractor and type of blade.
Time records were kept on clearing
ea(h plot. Clearing cost was calculated
based on ownership and operating costs
of machines, labor, and other inputs.
A KG blade is an angle blade wvilth a
exitting e(dge )arallel to the ground and a
protruding point for splitting large trees.
It is available commercially.
6
Miachine operators were r()tated every
30 min. to ensure e(qual skill for the
operator of each machine. The uni-
formlv level plots were of Conasauga
silt loam soil. Less than 1/ in. of rain
fell during the experiment.
Three separate steps - felling and
piling, disposal, and harro(wing - ere
included in the clearing operations.
With the KG blade, trees were sheared
off at ground level. On plots cleared
wvith the bulldozer blade, most of the
large trees were dug up..
After pushliing trees and brush into
wvindrows. diesel fuel was omiired on
and the piles burned. The 1)D-8 tractor
wvith KG b)lade 
was used to "punch'"
firles.
Bulldozer (left) and KG blade (right) were
used in land clearing tests. Note point on
KG blade for splitting large trees.
I lar miig or plowilng with a Ilea vy
(disk hiro)w \\'is )rinlarily to cuIt roots
aindil sill stuimps and to till the so()il.
VTliether roots aiid stullips left in lthe
ground(l are a prol)lem depends on how
the land is used.
Cost Comparisons
A Comparisoii of time all(! Costs for
each. step in clearing is shown in the
table. Felling and piling anid disposal
time and cost, as well as total machine
time and cost, were sigiificaiitly lower
on plots cleared with the KG blade.
One reason for greater disposal time on
bulldozer cleared plots was the dirt on
roots of trees, which 
caused trouble 
ill
burning.
Total machine time ranged from 2.2
t(o 5 hours per acre, with total cost
ranllging from $34.57 to $61.70 per acre.
Time and cost would have been about
half that had diesel fuel not been use(i
inll disposal and the harrowing omrnitted.
There was a time advantage in using
a large tractor for both types of blades
in felling and piling. ,However, total
cost per acre did 
not vary greatly
among sizes of tractors when the same
type blade was 
used.
Counts of trees were niade in two()
randomly selected sanmple areas of each
plot before clearing. Trees 
2 in. or
nmore in diamineter at breast height av-
eraged 510 per acre oin plots cleared
with the dozer blade and 700 on KG
plots. Hardwoods accounted for 
60%
and pines 36%. Most of the trees were
less than 6 in. diameter at breast height
-- 94% of pines and 84% of the hard-
woods. The large hardwvoods had more
eflfect oiln clearing time than d(lid a large
number of small trees.
IMAc(;INi. I Io UBns AND COST OF Cll;illNC LAND) Pu Acim, CiiEIIOKEE COUNTY, 1958
Tractor size
and type
of blade
D()zr
KG
D-7
Dozer ..
KG
D-8
l)ozer ....
K G --- ---- -
NMachine timne and cost of each operation
Fielling and piling l isposal I larrowing Total
.Cost T ime 
t
tiiv( (st I'liC i -CoGst Tiime Coist i Ciioi' Cost
Ihrosr )llars Hours I)ollar holro )olhs hor, I)olhlrs
2.7 2:3.62 1.8 :31.23 ().5 5.82 5.0 59.67
2.1 18.98 .8 14.14 .6 5.8t 3.5 :38.92
2.3 23.85 1.8 32.43 .4 3.81 4.5 60.09
1.7 18.88 .8 14.29 .3 3.54 2.8 36.71
1.4 20.84 1.9 36.16 .3
1.2 17.63 .7 11.98 .3
4.70) 3.6
4.96 2.2
61.70()
34.57
Lodged corn (left) makes harvesting diffi-
cult and lowers harvesting efficiency. The
upright corn at right was harvested rapidly
with little loss.
HARVESTING
DRYING
4g-coit.ue CORN
C. A. ROLLO, Associate Agricultural Engineer
H AIIVESTING COiN early reduces 
field
losses. Every day that corl i is left in
the field after it reaches a good har-
vestable stage increases chances of
losses.
Early harvest is especially important
during years of bad fall weather. Fall
winds and rains can cause corn to
break over badly, making harvestiing
slow and difficult with combines or
picker-shellers (see photos). In addi-
tion, much corn is left on the ground
when the crop is badly lodged and
picker efficiency is low. Leaving corn
in the field until late in the fall also
gives insects a greater charice to cause
damage.
MNoisture content is the major prob-
lem in early harvest. Corn can be har-
vested with a combine or picker-sheller
at moisture contents as high as 27%.
But shelled corn at this moisture level
cannot be safely stored in conventional
metal bins or wooden cribs. It must be
(ried to 12.5% 
moisture for safe 
farm
storage.
Harvesting and Drying Studies
Research on field shelling and d(ry-
ing high moisture corn has been done
at the Agricultural Engineering Farm,
Auburn, and the Upper Coastal Plain
Substation, Winfield. Corn was har-
vested at moisture contents ranging
from 27% to 18% in these tests.
Results show that the combine lhar-
vested 27%-moisture corn as efficiently
as it did that at 18% moisture. The
amount of cracked grain was not ma-
terially affected by moisture content at
harvest time.
Information was obtained to deter-
mine cost and time re(quired to dry high
moisture corn artificially with heated
air. Experience has shown that the
moist climate in Alabama during har-
vest season makes it essential that the
drying system he equipped to heat the
drying airl
Full Capacity Economical
As shown by data in the table, it
was more ecojnomical to use drying fa-
cilities at full capacity. Fuel, electrical,
anld labor costs amounted to only 4.6
per bu. when the drier was used at its
full capacity of 600 bu.
Drying costs and time varied with
initial and final moisture content, out-
side air temperature and humidity, and
drvilig air telmperature. Wh\Vlen 23.5%
moisture corn was dried at night during
rainy weather, drying timne was 10/4
hours (see table). The same amount
of 25% moisture corn dried during fair
weather required only 61/2 hours.
Cooling grain to the outside air tem-
perature after drying was considered
part of total drying time. Cooling 
dried
grain before storage is necessary to pre-
vent moisture condensation that would
spoil the grain during storage.
Corn can be harvested 3 to 5 weeks
early if drying facilities are adequate.
Getting the crop off the field early de-
creases insect damage, lodging, and
wilndstorm losses, Vwhich are extremely
high some seasons. In addition, early
harvest allows more time for fall plowv-
ing and seeding of fall crops.
FUEL, EL.ECTICAL, AND) LABon CosTs AND DnYoN(; TlE FOR HIGH MOIs'ruIE CON
Buslhels Moistture content
1)1r),ig co(st per laishel
Wet )ry Initial Final 11,1el ic-Labor Total Drying Cooling Total
No. No. Pet. Pet. 1)ol. D)ol. )ol. Dol. 
Hours Hours lours
Leaving corn in field until late fall in-
creases chances of insect damage.
8300 26-1.5 25.5 l 1.0
300) 266.4 25.0( 11.7
:300 271.5 23.5 1 1.3
Avratg b00-ht. i tch
(600 520.2 206.6 10.8
600 5-14.8 2:3.3 11.5
60()0 568.2 20.0 11.1
Average 600-1). bc Ilt
Drying tiime
0.027
.018
.050
.032
.029
.029
.019
.0)26
0.002
.002
.()0:3
.002
.001
.001
0.0)30
.026
.() 1)
.033
.()22
.019
.016
.0119
0.059
.0-16
.098
.067
.05:3
.0)49
.035
.0().16
5.67
5.50
9.8()
6.99
8.54
7.07
5.92
7.18
1.08
1.03
.95
1.1)2
1.38
1.63
1.25
1.42
6.75
6.53
10.75
8.0)1
9.92
8.70
7.17
8.6(0
A l s of almost any size Can grow
into the dairy business. Dair)yig has
advantages over most other livestock
enterprises on smaller farms. There is
a market for manufacturing milk pro-
duced from a fewv or many covs. Lim-
ited capital for adjustments is no serious
handicap. As a farm enterprise, dairy-
ing can be expanded bNi increasing herd
size and production per cow. Mklost sue
cessful dairy farms of today had small
beginnings.
Farm-Size Experiment
A farn-size experiment at the Pied-
mont Substation at Camp Hill, Ala., in
an 11-year period proved the profitable-
ness of a farming system that combined
production of cotton and milk for mw
ufacture. Operation of the 195-acre
experiment was begun in 1947 with the
usual mule and workstock equipment.
At the outset, cotton was the main
source of cash i comne.
About $1,400 was spent to establish
the dairy enterprise as a second major
source of income. This investment, or
capital outlay, was used to construct a
milk shed, to purchase 9 milk cows and
a heifer, to buy 6 milk cans, and to
buidI a milk coolitng vat. A year later,
an additional $1,446 was spent to buy
a milking machine, a water heater, 10
CowS, 4 pigs, and some new fencing.
Three additional dairy cows and 2 heif-
ers were purchased the third year, and
2 inore cows were bought in the seventh
year.
Herd Improvement
Throughout the 11 years, a total of
25 cows had beien purchased. At the
end of the operation, there were 22
DAIRYIN 
G--a 
cal
FARM BUSINESS
E. L. MAYTON, Supt., Piedmont Substation
J. H-.BLACKSTONE, Agricultural Economist
Form-size experiment, 1947-58, proved profitableness of system that at left averaged 4,000 lb. more milk (3-yr. av.) than Jersey-type
combined production of cotton and milk for manufacture. Production at right (5-yr. av.). Cool weather forages-rye (1) and crimson c!
per cow was increased by selective breeding; (2) typical crossbred ryegrass mixture (3)-were used for winter grazing.
8
eni\ s aid 25 lieu(rs of all ages on haii.
Most of the origiinal cOWS 1ad b llv re-
lflacd(l with leife 5 
ised( Ol the fari.
jat tle sales greatly cCXCC(Icdl pilv sC
of ctle. The bolilit cm)s wei iiostiv
small, of am]v 1)100i, aid low i ( p)-
ductiol. In first 2 years, nmilk produc-
tio0 averaged about 3,690 l11. per cow.
4or the last 2 years, 
production pe
COw was around 6,600 lb. This in-
('I Casedprodctioni was ti-e result of
iprovCd breediog, feediog, and man-
Production and Sales
lost of the feed used by the dairy
herd was grown on the farm. Only 
cot-
tonseed meal as a souirce of protein was
purchased. About 
1 lb. of grain 
was
fed for each 5 lb. of milk produced.
Fertilized according to Agricultural Ex-
periment Station recominendations, the
feed crop acreage for each cow and
replacement in recent years was 4.8
acres. This land was used as follows:
0.9 acre for grain and hay, 1.6 acres
for tem-porary SUMMCi aid winter graz-
ing, and 2.3 acres for permanent pas-
tore.
During the first 3 years of operation,
sales from cotton and cLairying were
about equal. As the dairy herd was im-
proved, milk sales 
increased. At the
same time, cotton acreage was reduced
by government allotments. For the last
fill year of operation, sales from the
dairy enterprise accounted for 88% of
all cash farm sales.
The first 3 years of operation were
required to establish the farm on a full
/ research is aimed at dairymen's problems of tomorrow-ways of 
New facilities have been provided for this current research: (1) 
a
easing production per cow, improving labor efficiency and cutting power-driven 
elevator to overhead feed bins; (2) auger-type feed
,e requirements, lowering feed costs per cwt. of milk, and the like. bunks; and 
(3) four-stall milking parlor.
production basis. Since that tite, pei-
acre and per cow outputs have coil-
tiiiued to increase. Due to the fall in
farm prices, total dollar sales oi the
farm have been declining since 1950.
At the same time, purchased items for
fariIn produilctiont increased ii price, cro-
ating a "cost-price squeeze."IHowever,
the farm Nvas able to offset some of these
conditions by increasing production and
biy lowering costs of production.
During the first 8 years, sales aver-
aged $3,975, expenses $2,638, leaving
a net cash income of $1,337. In the
last 3 years, sales averaged $6,148, 
ex-
penses $2,892, and net cash ipcome of
$3,256.
Returns.
For the 11 years'of operation, total
cash sales amounted to $62,401; cash
operating expenses totaled $1,230.
This left at total cash balaiece of
$81,171. Capital expendlitures for COWS,
tractors, dairy barn, fencing, machin-
eladother telated items amnountedl
to $10,180. This left an tcash rtLrn
of $20,991 o e an average of $1,908 pi
v'e. I lad the orign l farim been ownedc~
debhtI t-ethis iamIoont cou)ld h lave been
spenlt for. fani-ilv 
living. II l]iitionl
inattyv item-Ils pr()dtloccioii the fiarm 11 VCr
used. iii the home by the farm ainilv.
Had this farm remained a typical cot-
ton farm durinig 
this 11-year period,
rctnrns to the family woild have been
less thani hall ,what they were for the
cototl-dairy flarii.
At the close of operation( of the place
as a cotton farm in 1946, the value of all
i ventory items amounted to- $1)1,416.
Eleven years later the inventory to-
taleci $17,555. If an increase in land
value is included, the $10,416 farm was
\vorth close to $30,000 after 1i years
operatiol as a cotton-dairy farin.
iTe cotto-dairy farm hasI provided
the farm family with 
a much higher
year-to-Year living. In addition, it en-
abled the family to accumulate a farm
estate that was worth at least twice
what it would have been if operated as.
a typical cotton farm. This has been
possible by adding dairying as a year-
round enterprise. Not only have cows
beefn milked each day of the year, but
a sufflcient number has been milked
to make it a true dairy operation.
Results from this 11-year operation
have been used to answer the (fuestion
I ai (airying,w \iththe productiot of
manlufacturinig milk, be used to make a
good farm family living? The ans~vcr
is yes - ptovided dairying 
is h1andoled
ynaear-routi(l basis- with a sufficien-t
number of cowNs of a reasonably hIigh
p~rodulctioni level. During its operation.
this farm has answered nmay pr-actical
farm questiofis on 
feed. prodluctioil
toat1Magen tenlt of cm)vs, g-owvii ig te-liae-
mneitt Stock, he1r d sue(, breediing and
culling cows, al( other relate(l ies-
New Research
Iaty newv and differetit questions
now ieefd to be answered. Some of
these deal \vitf w \vays of (1) icreasitig
uird poductioti to 19,000) lb..or none
of milk per cow, (2) iicreasinig labor
efficiency to handle 300,000 lb. of milk
or more per man per year, (3) 
reducing
farm atid dairy labor requirements, 
(4)
lowering acreage requirements for feed
per cow, (5) feeding and management
practices needed for high-prodicing
cowS, (6) lowering 
feed costs per 
c't.
of milk, (7) reducing summer slumps
ini milk production, (8) increasing years
of milking life of high-producing cows,
and other related questions.
No longer is there the question can
dairying be used in Alabama as a way
of making a living? Rather, it is no W
a question of how to improve this way
of making a living. Present day agri-
culture has to compete with many op-
portunities for farm families both on
and off the farm. Also, many 
changes
are occurtitig in other phases 
of agri-
culture as ellasi airying. Prices
of the things that farmers buy wvill co-)'
tinue to irise inlthle futu re. Farm labor
\vill contintue. tobe scarce. Other states
'ill strive to make dairying a profitable
wa'ly of farming. In view of these types
of factors, it is necessary that the State's
dairy research program be expanded
and- ittensified.
In keeping wvithl currient (lairyre
seal-II inch cds, thle Piedi-on t Stol staIt 01
recently reoriganized tlie cotton-dairv
fain i to tm1ake it a mode-l, up-to-date
daity ntiit. More cows will be itilked,
and a higher productioni er \cov aid
per iman is exrected. Changes have
bwetn made in the feeding systemn that
oay vll redlice tIie acreage reqtire-
iintit tper(cow. I'hiis tmoderti (laity 
of)-
etatiot sioild answer dairy farmers
(Itestions of tomorrow.
NEED
WAT ER- SOL UB-LE cc
L. E. ENSMINGER, Soil Chemist
GC PJ.TN(; TttF RIGT ferltilizer ist 't as
simp~le as it (St tee was. A fewv years
Isack, the major ry x1, Va's ltsitsg thte
right amount.. Then catnie ats aWarHettess
of impor-tance of the right combittationI
of plant food elemetits antd reaction of
soil to different materials. Now\ it is
knoxvu. that manuflacturing processes
and raw materials used.ini fertilizer
manufacture can plhty a 
lig, part in re-
suilts olbtainied.
Phosphate fertilizers are a good ex-
ample. of 1how\rmantfa cturing processes
affect the finial prosduct. The phos-M-
phates sold today \vary greatly," tn-1Water
solttbility. Improved 'procedures of am-11 
Effect of water solubility on w0
moniiation (addinig ammiionia) 
and niew~ plot receiving 
1 4% soluble ph
mnanufacturintg processes are cauising a
trenid towvatd lowver w\ater-soluible piios- d19ted.since 
19 I to exal
phiorls in mixed fertilizers. On the 
towne of xater-soluble ps
otherlitancl. high-analysis fertilizers 
con)- .)tl.AsuyWsMd
talllligarnomui phsphaesxilih until 
19.34 at 1.85 locatiotst
ae100% wvater solulel, at e incereasing 
feet of degree of amttti-oniiatie
ini imnpottatee. Because of' these facts,
more1Vittformation abouLthtle needl for phsat cto yil.
sltowN that stperpltosphiate a
wvatcr-solulble phosphoruts mfrilz
wouki be valuiable, 
nfrtlzr to 4% 
niti*toget 1inlcreased
85% as much as did regular
Several Factors Important 
fphate. The decrease was at
r a decr 
ease in wvater-solltlle
Thec importanice of wa.,ter-solu'ble More recetitlv a test wvas
phosphiorus depends on several factors. ait C(3oaitst cemn
In, general, nmore w\ater-soluible pios- cottonl to ammn-oniated supet
plu16rus is nieeded for shiort-se-1asort than
for lonig-season crops. Plants ofteni 
show TI',: I.*EtrucEr- OF WVArTE'
aresponse in favor- of -water-solttlle OF PutOST10US IN 1Ftt--t
phosphorus duriisg early statges of GI-rr1oN Yuto1,n, Sixlte
growth, lbnt differences inay n iot lbe
evlidenit in fiial Yields.Sedoto
lImportatice of wvater solubihity dle- Soil Nt
creases xith- itscreasinig rate of apphi- type' ~ ~ 2
catitsts. Obse-tationls indieate that Isigrh - Soil
kIf knttx S( , dalblil ityx .Itlts a'11c IIc
setttt(littll bi.I. A (commerlcia~l et-
t il izer with 6(37 )of 'its ,phosphortIls
xvat (-soil tlle p cmb dteell aver-age of
12.2 11). Imtore seed cottolt per acre thanl
a sin'dilar fertilizer with only 25% of
phossphoruts water-soluble.
Wheat Response,
licsfpottse of.,vwheat to photsphiate fet-
tilizer of varvitsg Wa. ter solility was
teat during early growth stage is shown by comparison of
iosphorus (left) and 85 % soluble (right),
ate mnlIP0or
sphorits for
front19:31
to 
learnl 
ef -
)II of Super-
The (lata
.tt 001,01tiaLtedl
Yields oly
0sperphos-
ttributed to
Phosphorus.
ecarrie(1out
response of
rphosphiates
Lll ON
\ ITONS
n yield/acre
48 lb. P20.-
!lble Solubile
'b~.
2803
871
(19 1
164
9063
095
95(0
1,326
954
1,1217
SatIt:"lo m
otti fL~tt
stud~ied at Ih()rslbv. Bes~ults show that
fir1st c lipping f'orage yields increased
with inlcreasing water solubility, Table
2. Tie effect was less pronotttterl for
tlte seetod elipping. Grain yields wvere
not affected(.
Sitnte the ttced for watet soluhle
phosphorus in fertilizer depettds (mt
natty factors, it ma)ylbc impossible to'
make specific tecommendation]s. How-
ever, enou0lgh rcsutlts arc ava 'ilale to
show that some phosphorus should b~e
wvater-solithle for most Crops. On) the
other band, -it is doubtful if there 'is
any11 advantage in having more than 50.
to 630% in wvater-sollslle form, even for
re-spot sive cro(ps, grownV11onM]highlly 
de-
ficient soils.
I'AtttE 2. Es EFCu-,uroFWATERi Sot'untitx'
OF PttSPostuttUS IN A,-,i tONATExrnSU-
PEt1 tOSPt ATE ON \WHEATyR IAG;E
YIELDS, Tltotsnx, 1957
Pct. phospsorus tll
Nv.Iter-sosltl1('ftsrtss'
5-2
7 1 -- ------- -------
Pc-acre forage vilid
First Seconld
cuttting eltQtting
Lbs.
224
51)1
58! )
(388
8(05
Lb.
7410
977
9.48
1,1638
128(0
1,8(0
'3( 11). P20.- applied in bansds.
FERTILIZER USE
0. D. BELCHER and J. H. YEAGER
Department of Agricultural Economics
11ip0 NAM (Ile A(tenilled by aot
of factors. Such things as variety, plat-
ing time, soil fertility, 
cropping prac-
tices, weather, and harvesting methods
have a bearing on yields and profits.
Since commercial fertilizer has sch
an important effect 
on yields, using
correct amounts is essential. This is
pointed ill) by the 
fact that per unit
cost of production normally decreases
as vields increase. Thus. profits go up
with vields in most cases.
hn 1957, Alabaia farmers used an
average of 51 lb. of N (nitrogen), 54
11. of P (phosphate), and 50 11). of K
(potash ) per acre on cotton. On corn,
tlhe average wvas 40 11)l. N,27 b , and
21 11). K. These facts on 1957 fertilizer
use were obtained from interviewing
463 farmers in 16 Alabama counties in
a cooperative study with the Tennessee
Valley Authority.
N Used on Peanuts
Although .nitrogen is not recomn-
mended for peanuts, half of the farmers
growing this crop in the eastern Lower
Coastal Plain Area used N. Average
amount used was 7 lb. per acre. The
reason given for using this element was
"to get peanuts off to a good start ahead
of weeds and grass."
Almost all farmers used nitrogen oI0
cotton and corn. Only 32% used N,
45% P, and 143% K on hay crops and
pastures. The low percemitage using
fertilizer oml hay crops andipastiurcs
reduced the average amount Ie 0 acre.
Amounts of fertilizer used varied 1yw
types of farming areas (see table).
Sand Mountain farmers used nmre Ni
P, ald K per acre on cotton and more
N for corn than those of any other area.
Fairmers in the LAver Coastal Plainl
AYrea wvere elatively ligi 
1
Cr acre users.
of fertilizer on cotton and corn. They
were highest in use for hay crops and
pastllres.
Nitrogen Sources
All farmers interviewed were asked
to name the source of nitrogen they
preferred and to give their reason.
Ammonium nitrate was preferred by
40% and nitrate of soda by 36%. Sev-
eral other sources were mentioned. Per-
centage of farmers reporting each rea-
so for preference is as follows:
Reason Per ceit
Preferred amnmonium nitrate
I igller percenta,,ge N 3
Better reslilts --- - 24
Cheaper per lb. of N-- 24
other - -21
No reason given-
Preferred nitrate of soda
Always used this source 39
Better results 18
Easier to pll)1)Iy --- 1
Non-acid forming -------------- 6
Other 19
No reason given 2
High Analysis Fertilizers
A mixed fertilizer that contained 30
lb. or more of plant food per 100 lb.
\Vds Cal5sl dereol a Ihigh analysis fert
lizer. Only F7% of all farmlers reported
they had se( a high 
analysis fertilizer.
A majority of these 
lived in the Ten-
nessee Valley and Lower Coastal Plain
(eastern) areas. Most commoI 
ones use (1
were 0-10-20, 0-12-20, and 0-20-20.
High Analysis Preference
Of those who had IseId high a1l1y'sis
fertilizers, (2( saiid they preferred s1cl
grades. Major reaso s giVsen w\\ere 11111
plant food per bag, and cheaper per lb.
of plant food. Sonie farmers said their
preferemlce depenled on the crop. TIhere
a ppeirfti to be a preference for Iigh
il llysis fertilizers. to' use 1)11 hay aid
pasture crops. Some anners had ex-
perienced difficulties in getting stands
of field crops and associated this with
use of high analysis fertilizers.
As reported by those 'inte-viewed,
57% borrowed funds to purchase ferti-
lizer' in 1957. Almost all credit was
ised for purchases in the spring. The
largest percentage of farmers borrowed
in the Black Belt \vhere the proportion
of teriants was greatest. Commercial
banks, fertilizer dealeis, and landlords
were credit sources most frequently
reported.
ANElAGE AsmouN'r OF N, P, AND K UsED PEn Acoc ON SmECTON 
CROPS, ALABAMA, 1957
Average amount sed per acre
Ar1' Cotton Corn I lay alld past ire
N 1 N K N P K
l). Lb. lb. LI. 1.1). L ). Lb. Lb. Lb.
tton.~~ncori, )'refrredurllnori uln ni2))-
Tl(llnSS WIValley
S a n d M o u n t a i n - ---
Li1icstolle Valles-
Upr Coastal I
'iedinonlit
Black Belt
Lowver Coastal P1l in (west)
LIower Coastal Plin (east)
S TmA\ :E1 MA;
66
60
4:3
50
47
51
.11
70
60 (
,48
.17
49
59
19-
51
40
5 6
.55
41
01
50
24
.9'
,49
3:'
:38.
29
15
44
10
26
27
30
19
29
27
-20
25
18
19
15
27
213
21
C)
17
10
5
8
10
6
19
21
10
8
12
7
.9
21(1
17
i.9.
1(
11
IN CO ME c zTea tom
CONTRACT EGG iradecre
BILL R. MILLER and MORRIS WHITE
Department of Agricultural Economics
CO-NTRACT PIRODUCTION and iarketiig
of tablle eggs offers a new 
income op-
portunfity for many Alabama farmers.
Although familiar for broiler produc-
tion, contracts for table eggs are a
fairly recent development. 
Under pro-
visions of egg contracts, the contractee
(farmer) furnishes house, equipment,
and labor and is paid a set rate per doz.
for eggs produced throughout the life
of the flock. The contractor (merchant,
feed dealer,. or other) furnishes the
flock, feed, medications, and reserves
the right to make managerial decisions.
Most in Eight Counties
Egg production contracts are iot
available to all Alabama farmers. They
are most prevalent in 8 Sand Mountain
counties (see map). The number of
hens kept under contract in this area
has steadily increased since contracts
were first offered in 1954. Ai estimated
5% of table egg production in Alabama
is lii(d r c1tract.
bmer egg I iii s r iii agnnn
Slttcs, palYmli.1tS and othat 1""' *""
.in 141N/n 
th 
l re 
hu 
u
th(e trend in vayment has 1Iwee down-
ward. One contractor paid 
12( peri
doz. for eggs of all sizes on his first
contract. On the next production 
cycle
the rate was 100 for large and 5 
for
medium and small eggs. 
It then
dropped to 90 for large and 
50 for me-
dium and small eggs. Future 
rates by
this contractor will be 60 
for large and
3, for medimn and small 
eggs. Prices
paid by 8 Alabama and 
I oiut-of-state
contractors are given in the 
table.
lInceitive payments for high 
produic-
tion, low mortality, and good 
feed con-
version are expected to 
become more
popular. This is one way for the con-
racto to ge(l bet tem lmanagememit. 
low-
ever, contractees seem satisfied with a
straight payment plan.
12
Payment Plans Preferred
lii a recent Alabama study, contract
and independent producers were asked
what method of payment they desired.
A majority of answers were either (1)
straight payment plan with contract
price per doz. the oly return to grow-
ers, (2) contract price per doz. plus a
bonus paid by an incentive plan, or (3)
a monthly salary based on number of
birds housed.
There was a significant difference be-
tween choices of contractees and inde-
pendent producers. About 7 out of 10
contractees favored the straiglIt pay-
ment plan, whereas 6 out of 10 inde-
pendents favored an incentiive plan.
Contracts have been 
most popular
with farmers having no previous expe-
rience with table egg production. Over
half (52%) had not produced table eggs
before accepting a contract.
Experienced poultrymen have not
been enthusiastic about contracts. Only
. I N --- 7 j 7 7-
CI~~~~ ~ ~ 311~'Lrl~iCC
C8 ounties
contract
common
a small percentage indicated any inter-
est in changing from independent to
contract production. One reason given
Was that potential returns from contract
production were not equal to those from
independent oper ation.
Average lifetime egg production of
hens on contract has been about 60%.
Thus, contractees have received returns
1 aisging from $- to $1.25 per hen. In-
dependent producers in the same com-
iunities estimated that they received
about $2 per hen from 
the same pro-
duction rate. The difference in returns
goes to the contractor as payment for
capital, supervision, and risk.
Despite the differ ences iln returns, a
ingrease is anticipated in tie number
of eggs prodiced and marketed under
contract. A majority of the contractees
are satisfied With contract price and
provisions. Contract operations are pro-
viding an outlet for labor that has either
een idle or under employed for the
iiost part. E ve xwith the low contract
rate, additional income can be earned.
Pimcs PAm PiI DOZEN FOil EGcs Mv NINE
CON RAcTons, ix' SizE oF Ecs, 
1958
Rate per dozen, by egg size
Con-
tractor
A
Ae) 7
8
G 8
11 (3
Average 7
Large Mcdium Small
cents cents Cents
0
(3
7
8
6
5
8
6
6
6.33
a
5
(3
.3
oa t
8
( 3
wvee or
\Al(,(" ()I
--cr-ackii
Cents
2
4
.3
' Bonus paid if contractor makes profit.
2eIncentive 1)aymlent for high production.
Left on farm for home use.
T IE CiHAN CES are good when stand-
ing on field crop land that you are o(n
many millions of living organisms
some of them thieves.
A single gin. of fertile field soil may
contain as many as 100 million bacteria
and 50) thousand fungi. An acre-foot
of soil weighs approximately 2 million
lb). anld there are 453.6 gi. in a 11).
Thus, the microbial poputlatio runs
into fanltastic inumbers.
Soil Plant Life
The tiny plant life of the soil is re-
ferred to as the soil microflora. It is
made up chiefly of bacteria and fungi
living in close association with one an-
other. They compete fiercely for a place
in the organic matter of the soil frolm
which they obtain food. The number
and kinds of organisms in a "commu-
nity" depend upon the kind of organic
matter present and the kind of crop
growing in the area. Most of the tiny
organisms within a "community" are
harmless, but, like communities of peC-
ple, there are usually 
a few "thieves."
These are the plant parasites that an-
nually rob farmers of many valuable
plants by causing root-rot diseases.
One of' the worst pullic eneiies of
agriculture is the fungus, Sclerotailit
rolfsii, that attacks all legurmimous crops
as well as many vegetables, causing
the disease known as southern blight.
Soil Parasite Research
The primary concern of one research
project at the API Agricultural Experi-
ment Station is to learn how to control
the parasitic activities of S. rolfsii. The
usual procedure necessary to catch a
thief is (1) to become acquainted with
the weaknesses in his operation, (2) to
learn whichl associated individuals are
aiding and abetting" the criminal or
are detrimental to his activities, a d
finally (3) to use this information to
rap thle suspect.
Southern Blight Studies
Basic studies at Auburn are lbeing
conducted to determine the relatio1-
ships between the southern blight fun-
gus and other organisms associated with
it in diseased white clover. Stolons of
white clover naturally infected by S.
rolfsii were collected from fields at the
Thorsby Foundation Seed Stocks Farm,
the Tallassee Plant Breeling Unit, i nd
at Auburn. Tle tiny organisnis were
Shown in the photo is dam-
age done to a stand of white
clover by Sclerotium rolfsii.
This parasitic soil organism,
which causes southern blight
disease, is a serious enemy
of all leguminous crops and
many vegetables.
.WHITE 
CLOVER
SOIL ORGANISM
E. A. CURL and J. D. HANSEN
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
removed in the laboratory from the
diseased tissue of each stolon for study.
From about 1 000 stolons processed,
ever 3,000 fuigi and a similar number
of bacteria were obtained. It was noted
that certain ones of these were moore
abundant than others in infected sto-
lons. By growing these organisms to-.
gether in various combinations in the
laboratory, some of their effects upon
S. rolfsii and upon one another were
determine(d.
Organisms Compared
Results of tests among thle 11 pre-
dominant fungi isolated fromn stolons
showed all of the fungi tested except
one either affected 
or were affected by
one or mnore other fungi in the group.
Four of the fungi stopped growth of
S. rolfsii. Two 
of them stopped 
growth
of most of the other fungi in thle popu-
lation. Tliius indicates that these two
fungi are highly competitive iii a mixed
populatiop aild are wvorthy of further
studly i d'onecti)n with their possilble
use il lbiological control of S. rolfsii.
Other Tests Studied
Further tests showed that these fungi
associated with diseased clover affected
to various degrees the production of
selerotia by S. rolfsii. The sclerotia are
the tiny hard structures produced in
large numbers by the southern blight
fungus on diseased plants and in the
soil. They are very important in tlhe
life cycle of the parasite, since they
may live in the soil for several years,
then germinate and continue the dis-
ease. All but two of the fungi caused
a reduction in amount of sclerotium pro-
(luced whlen grown in the presence of
S. rolfsii. The check, in which S. rolfsii
was grown alone in culture, averaged
2,000 sclerotia per test plate. Trichio-
clernoia (try-co-der-mna) allowed no sele-
rotium production, whereas two others
actually stimulated sclerotia to form.
Studies are being continued to de-
termnine the effects of bacteria upon the
activities of S. rolfsii and associated
fungi. T ius far several bacteria iso-
laetd from white clover have slhown
strong antibiotic effects upon S. rolfsii.
13
VEGETABLE VARIETIES
C. L. ISBELL, Horticulturist
devepe(l Ito exteld the season of ripe
lfruit.
1From this researclh new aInd imnproved
varieties IaI ve bum ) retrited to the
ifarmer or greater returns Ilron, vege-
fohic -produlctiol.-
i(OMr FAlI.hE-HGOWN Cvegetables to
n)ew varieties and old ones with a "new
look" has been the story of vegetable
improvement carried on by the API
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Results of this work have been help-
ful to 2083,000 home gardeners and
commercial growers. Vegetables tested
at this Station for many years include
bush, semi-vining, pole and lima beans;
southern peas, pumpkin, tomatoes, let-
tuce, cabbage, onions, peppers, sweet-
potatoes, corn, watermelons, and others.
New Varieties
In this research, possibilities 
of usilng
native species in dcleveloping new va-
rieties have been emphasized. In test-
ing beans more than 50 farmer strains
were grown for comparison and l)reed-
ing. From these came two new varie-
ties, the Mild White Giant and the Ala-
bama No. 1. The latter was probably
the first nematode-resistant breeding
stock in America.
Also developed were eight varieties
of southern field peas. The last two,
Early Purple Hull and Knuckle Purple
Hull, were introduced. in 1958.
Winter hardy, reseedin g colored
strains of leaf lettuce were improved.
Cabbage strains were tested to. deter-
nmie the best for Alabania ecoditions.
New methods of propagation, using
roots, leaves, and buds were helpful in
breeding work.
Storage and Quality
Three strains of onions that with-
stand low temperature and store well
were tested. Two of these are now con-
sidered of value as dry onions for gen-
eral use. They store better than the
Yellow Bermuda. One, a multiplier
type, also supplies green onions for
about 8 months of the year.
Work with peppers included a hot
variety for use with pickles, compari-
son of sweet varieties for yield and
storage, and a new yellow pimiento.
A new pumpkin variety, Alagold, is
a high yielder, stores well, and is an
excellent substitute for sweetpotatoes
when baked or used for pies.
Several hundred kinds of watermel-
ons were tested for earliness, size, yield,
color, and table quality of flesh. Meth-
ods of freezing and a highl quality ice
box variety were developed.
Tomato work included the improve-
ment of size and quality of the cherry
type. Newv methods of propagation 
with
leaves and grafting on related plants
were used. A methlod of storage was
New pumpkin variety, Alagold, developed
through research is shown at top and Ala-
bama No. 1 bean, probably the first nema-
tode resistant variety ever developed, is
shown at bottom.
Below are some of the varieties improved and developed in the
vegetable breeding research. Left is an improved variety of
, .
sweet pepper, center, a semi-vining bean and at right, the Giant
Blackeye pea. It 
is one of eight varieties 
introduced.
14
BLOOD GROUPING
v~ae ee ca
ANIMAL
BREEDING
L. W. JOHNSON, Assistant Poultry Husbanciman
1LOOD (GROUPING, a wa' Of fillding
differences in farm animals, may prove
inIvaluable to livestock breeders in Ala-
bama.
More is known 1at present about
blood 1grouping in chickens and cattle
than other farm alnimals.
Poultry Diseases Studied
Blood grouping is a part of the poul-
try research program at the API Agri-
cultural Experimenlt Station. Several
workers are engaged in a 
pioneering
study of the blood groups in connection
with diseases of the chicken.
The groups are based on chemical
structures in the surface of the red
blood cell called antigens. Antigens are
iniherited charactters, each a-Iproduct of
a specific unit of heredity or1 bloodgroup
gene. Every chicken hais five knowvn
pairs of blood group genes. One 
nlem-
er if eaclh pair is passed onlto tle
individual from each) of its parents. hll-.
leritance of tle gene pairs is governed
by five corresponding genetic systems
naimedI A, 13) C, D)) and E.
Blood Grouping Method
Tie blood of 1n animal is grouped
in tie research vork by testing the red
cells in a series of fluids. The fluids are
blood serums takeln from individuals
immunized ly transfusions of blood
from selected (lonors. Each fluid con-
taills antibo(lies Capable of collnlbillilig
oly with one kid of antigen. This
combination causes red cells to stick
together in clumps. Chicken blood 
is
tested routinely by ading I drop of
cells to a test tube containing two drops*
of a fluid., allowing the test to inculate,
a~nd Ibserinrito
an observing it for the presenceor
absence of clumping. Multiple tests
(1]lploying lliLly fluids shov the com-
plete blood type of a bird.
Leghorns Tested
Tlhere are several aspects to the re-
search work at the API Station. Fore-
most, bilood groups of several inbred
liIes of Leghorns are being studiedfor
(lifferees in natural resistance to cer-
tainl diseases.Th e differences in 111o0(
groups are bein vesigte apos
sille sources (f variation in diseasere-
sistance amnong these liles. Results from
(one gellercatiln (If cdicks give some in-
dication that the A. blood groups influl-
ence resistanice tocecoal coccidliosis.
Disease Resistance
blreedilg diickels for resistance to ii me
diseas taffects their resistance to othlter
iseases. Prelimni ary fincdings indicate
tlat genetic resistance t( leuksls car-
lie-s with it colnsideralble resistance to
cecal c(Icci(liosis.
.Also, re.sistallee to cecal coeci(liosis
5ecdnl5 to ((111re.sistance to( ll the t
eeeall \orilI and(11 laekhbad. Otiher Ic-
slults 51 lOv clearly alee slto tis1
The bird above is receiving a transfusion
of whole blood from another bird. He will
produce antibodies in his blood serum that
are capable of causing red blood cells of
the donor bird to clump. Through this
process it is possible to recognize various
blood groups for study.
trend. Birds that are more resistant
than others to either cecal coccidiosis
or leukosis are more highly infected
than the others by the coniinon round-
worm.
Other Studies
File possible effects of blood groups
on the coistituition of man and ec)-
lnomic traits of animals have been dis-
cussed for imny years. Poultry breeders
at the main Texas 
Station have greatly
improved tile outlook in this field. A-
tiough intense inbreeding tends to
eliminate genetic differences, the Texas
workers found that chickens within
loany highly inbred lines differed in
respect to genes of the B system. Ap-
parently this difference cannot lbe elimi11-
nated from a group of chickens without
tireatening the group's -survival.
Also, it was showvm in certa-in hines
that birds heterozygoos 
(unlike genes)
for)I genles of thle B systemm excelled1
homo'Lygous (like genes) birds in'hatch-
ability, egg pr(Ouction, growth, and
livability lhv m arLins ranging from 3%
t) 20%. Such margins of superiority
are illml1portailt ill coulmercial competi-
tion),Lilld several large poultry 
brecedim,
Com1anies have lnade 1)ow( St1ies a
part of their research progranls.
TIle founlIder of this approach to
poultry breeding has state(] tlLat tile
field now sm passes all expected off it
t10 ears ago. Yet only a beginning has
1 eel imiade, aid it seens that more
Surprises cal le expected ,frm 1blood
gyoJilg sttidies ill the future.
15
CCeditG04cU{ c~t ~,& a&(c
ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE SITUATION
E. J. CAIRNS and N. A. MINTON
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology
D IFFERENCES in the 5 species of
root-knot nematodes in Alabama are
proving valuable in 
developing a low-
cost control program.
This is one solution to the root-knot
nematode situation as outlined in the
spring issue of 
HIGHLIGTS.
Tests at the API Agricultuial Ex-
periment Station include many crops
exposed to the 5 species 
of root-kiot
inematode. The chart shovs examples
ranging from high susceptibility 
in to-
mnatoes to high iresistaice in cirotalaria
to all 5 root-knot nematodes.
The strawberry is highly resistant to
all but one of the root-knot nematodes.
Good production of strawberries ispos-
silble on land infested with any of tie
species except the nortlher. 
Land with
this species will require covtrol.
Differences in Resistance
Small dliffereniices in ematode resis-
tance ill varieties of soIe crops cai
make great differences in yields. For
example, Auburn 56 and Empire va-
rieties of cotton are sinlilar in their
susceptibilities to all but the cottoio
root-kn-ot neiatode. Foltlillately, plalIt
breeders have been able to develop in
Auburn 56 increased resistalce to tlhat
partic'lalr nematode, 
one of thIe iost
common in tihe State. Although iot
completely resistant, it greatly reduces
losses from Fusarium wilt bc(ause ill-
fe'(tiol by the fuiigus is associated \vitlh
illfestation of the roots by l1('ematodes.
.PlaIt breeders at Auburn were alI '
to develo) ill the Alabalra No. I p(Ile
10al resistanlce to the two most c( m-
1m1 rIot-kllot niematodes ill tl' Statl,
the cottoii and southeri. I lowever,
Kentucky Wo ,der would be less sls-
ceptible for locations where northern
(w javal ese I Iinomtodes Ire present.
Ifor atin (intenclartsows tat
for each' kind of iwimatode Ithiere are
plants ranging from highly resistant to
highly susceptible. Suitable rotations
using highly resistant plants provide a
way for reducing the root-knot nerna-
tode population prior to planting a sus-
ceptible crop. This saves the cost of
using chemicals for control.
The differences of plant susceptibility
t the different nematodles account for
contradictory results obtained from diif-
ferent locations with the same varietics.
The root-knot nematode is not just oe I
kilnd of plant parasitic nematode. The
FREE Bulletin or Report of Progress
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
of the ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
E. V. Smith, Director
Auburn, Alabama
Permit No. 1132-5/59- 8M
Roots of plants in greenhouse are exam-
ined for rootknot nematode damage.
chart presents obvious reasons for tak-
ing precautions against introducing an
additiorial kind of root -knot nematode
into a planting area. This is easily id
f'q iently di1e by using root-knot in-
fected transplants.
Laboratory examination of soil and
plant salmlples to determin which kinds
Of iiematodles are present ald a recol-
m'lIdled control is available as a frce
service at the API Station, AlIlIurI1.
PEHALlY FOR PRIVATE USE TO AVOID
PAYMENT OF POSTAGE, $300
CROP ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE SPECIES TESTED
COTTON SOUTHERN PEANUT NORTHERN 
JAVANESE
CROTALARIA HIGHLY HIGHLY HIGHLY 
HIGHLY HIGHLY
SPECTABILIS RES. RES RES RES. RES.
STRAWBERRY HIGHLY HIGHLY HGHIGHLY IHIGLY
(BLAKEMORE) RES. RES. RES. SUSC. RES.
COTTON SLIGHTLY. HIGHLY HIGHLY
(AUBURN 56) susc REITAT RES. RES. RESISTANT:
COTTON HIGHLY ''. 
HIGHL Y HIGHLY
(ROWDEN)Pal SUSC R ESISTANT RES. RES.RESISTANT
.Ide any ic~ ps ta-v;_ dfK-A-m NAA ------co ii
POLE BEAN' SLIGHTLY gHIGHLY*** SLIGHTLY 'HIGH LYa
POLE BEAN * ai IIH*.*.*HIGHLY IGHLYa HIGHLY ODERA ELY
(KY. WONDER) SaUSC 0 SUS. S.L. .SC RES SuC.
*.*.IN*f lose aw quw w10-10 w_ 'V t k*'# t* a '
TOMATO AIGHLY*..aa HIGHLY .. t.-HIGHLY 
. HIGHLY *VIITM . *1
(RUT GERS) SU susc . -.* ,. .s usc.*, *ssc .,SSsusc.OU.*(RUTGERS) 
a---- -- 
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