FORTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT January 1, to December 31, 1937 OF THE Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Alabama Polytechnic Institute AUBURN / 87?- M. J. FUNCHESS, Director AUBURN, ALA. Contents T r u s te e s ------------ -------------------------------------3 S ta tio n S ta ff ------------------------ ------------- ---- -----3 N ew P u b lication s ------------------- -------------- ------ --- 5 A gricultural E conom ics ------------------------------------ 6 A gricultural Engineering ---------------------------------- 7 A gronom y and Soils ---------------------------------------- 9 Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Poultry ------------------- 16 Botany and Plant Pathology --------------------------------24 H orticulture and Forestry ----------------------------------26 Special Investigations --------------------------------------30 Zoology and Entom ology --------- -------------------------- --31 ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION TRUSTEES His Excellency, Bibb Graves, President A. H. Collins, State Superintendent of Education Francis W . Hare (First District) ........................ George Blue (Second District) ........................... T. D. Sam ford (Third District) ........................... H. H. Conner (Third District) ............................. H . D. M errill (Fourth District) ------------- -------------- C. S. Culver (Fifth D istrict) ............................. Robert K. Green (Sixth District) .......................... Paul S. Haley (Seventh District) .......................... Edward A. O'Neal (Eighth District) ...................... Victor H. Hanson (Ninth District) ....................... P. 0. Davis, Secretary of Board Auburn, Ala. ------- Ex-Officio ------- Ex-Officio Monroeville, Ala. Montgomery, Ala. -----Opelika, Ala. _....Eufaula, Ala. -- Anniston, Ala. ... Gadsden, Ala. - Greensboro, Ala. ------Jasper, Ala. --- Florence, Ala. Birmingham, Ala. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Luther Noble Duncan, B.S., M.S., LL.D., President M. J. Funchess, M.S., D.Sc., Director of Experiment Station W. H. Weidenbach, B.S., Executive Secretary Kirtley Brown, A.B., Agricultural Editor Mary E. Martin, Librarian Sara Willeford, B.S., Agricultural Librarian Agricultural Economics: B. F. Alvord, M.S. B. T. Inman, M. S. E. G. Schiffman, M.A. Agricultural Engineering: R. E. Yoder, Ph.D. J. W . Randolph, M.S............... E. G. Diseker, B.S . E. D. Gordon, M.S. I. F. Reed, M.S. A Fred Kummer, B.S. C. H. Bailey, B.S-. B. C. Small, B.S.. C. M. Stokes, B.S .. Agronomy and Soils: J. W. Tidmore, Ph.D. Anna L. Sommer, Ph.D........... G. D. Scarseth, Ph.D............. N . J. V olk, Ph.D . ................. J. R. Taylor, Ph.D . ............... J. A. Naftel, Ph.D . ............... H. B. Tisdale, M.S. J. T. Williamson, B.S.. H. R. Albrecht, M .S.............. J. B . D ick, B .S. .................. D. G. Sturkie, Ph.D............... E. L. M ayton, M .S.................. J. W . Richardson, B.S............ F. E. Bertram , B.S................ W. V. Chandler, B.S. ........... H. R. Benford, B.S................ Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Poultry: J. C. Grim es, M .S. ............... W . D. Salmon, M.A.............. C. J. Koehn, Ph.D . .............. *C. 0. Prickett, B.A ............... G. A. Schrader, Ph.D............. *On leave. Head, Agricultural Economics .Assistant Agricultural Economist . Assistant Agricultural Economist Acting Head, Agricultural Engineering . .Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.) -------------------Assistant Agricultural Engineer Associate Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.) ssistant Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.) -Assistant Agricultural Engineer . Assistant in Agricultural Engineering ................................. G raduate A ssistant ............................. Graduate A ssistant -------------------------- -H ead, Agronom y and Soils Associate Soil Chemist --- -- --- ----- -- --- -- Associate Soil Chem ist ............................. A ssociate Soil Chem ist ............................. A ssociate Soil Chem ist ............................. A ssistant Soil Chem ist ............................ A ssociate Plant Breeder .............................. A ssociate A gronom ist -------------------------------A ssistant A gronom ist --------Associate Agronomist (Coop. U.S.D.A.) .............................. A ssociate A gronom ist .............................. A ssistant A gronom ist ............... (Brewton) Assistant in Agronomy ............... (Prattville) Assistant in Agronomy .................................. G raduate A ssistant ....-----------------------------.- G raduate A ssistant Head, Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Poultry --------------------------------- A nim al N utritionist ----------------------Associate Animal Nutritionist ..................... Associate Animal Nutritionist ............---------- Associate Animal Nutritionist Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station W. C. Sherman, Ph.D. J. L. West, D.V.M. W. E. Sewell, M.A. D. F. King, M.S. C. D. Gordon, M.S. G. J. Cottier, M.A. Botany and Plant Pathology: J. L. Seal, Ph.D. E. V. Smith, M.S.. J. R. Jackson, Ph.D. H. M. Darling, M.S. Horticulture and Forestry: L. M. Ware, M.S. C. L. Isbell, Ph.D. E. W. McElwee, M.S. Keith C. Barrons, M.S. R. W. Taylor, M.S. Donald J. Weddell, M.S. Hubert Harris, B.S. W. A. Johnson, B.S. Special Investigations: J. F. Duggar, M.S. Zoology-Entomology: J. M. Robinson, M.A. H. S. Swingle, M.S. L. L. English, Ph.D. F. S. Arant, M.S. A. M. Pearson, Ph.D. Substations: Fred Stewart, B.S. J. K. Boseck, B.S. R. C. Christopher, B.S. J. P. Wilson, B.S. C. A. Brogden, B.S. K. G. Baker, B.S. Otto Brown, M.S. Harold Yates, B.S...... Associate Animal Nutritionist Assistant Animal Nutritionist Assistant Animal Husbandman Associate Poultry Husbandman Associate Poultry Husbandman Assistant in Poultry Husbandry Head, Botany and Plant Pathology ----- ... -----.. ------- Associate Botanist and Plant Pathologist Assistant in Botany and Plant Pathology ('Fairhope) Assistant Plant Pathologist (Coop. State Dept. Agr., and Ala. Extension Service) Head, Horticulture and Forestry Horticulturist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Forester Assistant in Horticulture Laboratory Technician Research Professor of Special Investigations Head, Zoology-Entomology Associate Entomologist Associate Entomologist Assistant Entomologist Associate Biologist (Coop. U.S.D.A. and State Department of Conservation) Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle Mina, Ala. Assistant Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation, Belle Mina, Ala. Superintendent Sand Mountain Substation, Crossville, Ala. Superintendent Wiregrass Substation, Headland, Ala. Assistant Superintendent Wiregrass Substation, Headland, Ala. Superintendent Black Belt Substation, Marion Junction, Ala. Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation, Fairhope, Ala. ----Assistant Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation, Fairhope, Ala. CHANGES IN STATION STAFF DURING 1937 Appointments: W. V. Chandler, B.S. H. R. Benford, B.S.... F. E. Bertram, B.S. E. G. Schiffman, M.A. C. H. Bailey, B.S. W. A. Johnson, B.S. A. M. Pearson, Ph.D. J. L. West, D.V.M. C. M. Stokes, B.S. J. K. Boseck, B.S. C. A. Brogden, B.S. Resignations: A. Carnes, M.S. H. S. Peters, M.S. C. M. Clark, M.S. R. L. Melcher, M.S. Edith M. Slights Graduate Assistant ................................... G raduate A ssistant Assistant in Agronomy Assistant Agricultural Economist Assistant in Agricultural Engineering Laboratory Technician Associate Biologist (Coop. U.S.D.A. and State Department of Conservation) Assistant Animal Nutritionist Graduate Assistant Asst. Supt. Tennessee Valley Substation Asst. Supt. Wiregrass Substation Acting Head, Agricultural Engineering Assoc. Biologist (Coop. U.S.D.A. and State Department of Conservation) Associate Agricultural Economist Assistant Agricultural Economist Statistical Assistant Forty-Eighth Annual Report NEW PUBLICATIONS Articles in Scientific Journals McElwee, E. W.-Test Production of Early Asters Outdoors Under Southern Conditions. The Florist Review, January 14, 1937. Naftel, James A.-Soil Liming Investigations: III. The In- fluence of Calcium and a Mixture of Calcium and Magnesium Carbonate on Certain Chemical Changes of Soils. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29:526-536 (1937). Naftel, James A.-Soil Liming Investigations: IV. The In- fluence of Lime on Yields and on the Chemical Composition of Plants. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29:537-547 (1937). Naftel, James A.-Soil Liming Investigations: V. The Rela- tion of Boron Deficiency to Over-Liming Injury. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29:761-771 (1937). Salmon, W. D. and Goodman, J. G.-Alleviation of Vitamin B Deficiency in the Rat by Certain Natural Fats and Synthetic Esters. Jour. Nutrition 13: 477-500. 1937. Schrader, G. A., Prickett, C. 0., and Salmon, W. D.-Sympto- matology and Pathology of Potassium and Magnesium Deficien- cies in the Rat. Jour. Nutrition 14:85-109. 1937. Schrader, G. A.-The Determination of Semi-Macro Quanti- ties of Glucose by the Hagedorn-Jenson Method. The Chemist Analyst 26: 52-55. 1937. Smith, E. V. and Fick, George L.-Nut Grass Eradication Studies: I. Relation of the Life History of Nut Grass, Cyperus rotundus L., to Possible Methods of Control. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29:1007-1013. 1937. Smith, E. V. and Mayton, E. L.-Nut Grass Eradication Studies: II. The Eradication of Nut Grass, Cyperus rotundus L., by Certain Tillage Treatments. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 30:18-21. 1938. Sommer, Anna L., and Booth, Thomas E.-Meta- and Pyro- phosphate within the Algal Cell. Plant Physiology, 13:199-205. 1938. Sturkie, D. G.-Control of Weeds in Lawns with Calcium Cyanamid. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 29:803-808. 1937. Ware, L. M.-Interrelation of Spacing of Seed Piece and Rate of Application of Fertilizer in the Production of Potatoes in Alabama. Am. Potato Jour. XIV: 355-362. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Ware, L. M.-Interrelation of Size of Seed Piece and Rate of Application of Fertilizer in the Production of Potatoes in Ala- bama. Am. Potato Jour. XIV: 375-382. Experiment Station Publications Mayton, E. L.-Cotton Spacing. Circular 76. Inman, Buis T.-Purchases of Feeds and Grains in Alabama, 1935. Circular 77. Sturkie, D. G.-Fertilizer and Crop Experiments on Certain Soils of the Black Belt. Circular 78. Sturkie, D. G.-Experiments with Hay Crops in Alabama. Circular 79. King, D. F. and Cottier, G. J.-The Value of Peanuts and Pea- nut Meal in Rations for Chickens. Circular 80. Diseker, Ellis G.-A Device to Assist in Mowing Kudzu. Leaflet 16. Sewell, W. E.-A Method of Curing Pork When the Weather is too Warm for Natural Chilling. Leaflet 17. Wilson, J. P.-Suggestions for Growing Hogs in Southeast Alabama. Special Leaflet. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS The Demand of Alabama Markets as a Basis for Adjustments in Agricultural Production within the State. Purchases of Work Stock and Commercial Feeds. (Buis T. Inman) .- Work stock represent an important part of the investment and annual ex- pense on Alabama farms. For the years 1929 to 1936, Alabama farmers purchased annually from out of the State approximately 23,800 head of work stock valued at $2,635,000. Even with these annual purchases there were only .91 head of horses and mules 2 years old and over per male farm worker over 14 years of age in 1935. The farm shortage in work stock was lessened to some extent in 1935 by the use of approximately 23,000 head of oxen. In later years the increase in purchases of tractors on large farms has relieved the work stock shortage while on small farms this shortage has been met to some extent by purchases of mules and few oxen are now used. A study of the sales of commercial feeds shows that 283,624 tons valued at $10,582,000 were sold in Alabama in 1936. Of this amount approximately 100,000 tons were manufactured from State-grown products. The sale of commercial feeds amounted to $39 per census farm for 1936. Forty-Eighth Annual Report Farm Planning for the Future in Alabama. (Ben F. Alvord). -In farm planning attention usually should be directed first to the point where the need is greatest. That point for the Ala- bama farmer appears to be in cash income per farm (Table 1). Cash income from farm production, including government pay- ments, averaged $402 in this State for the seven years 1929 through 1935. This was slightly less than 39 per cent of the average cash income per farm in the United States. TABLE 1.--The Average Income from Farm Production and Value of Farm- Produced-Family-Used Products for Farmers of the United States and Alabama, 1929-1935. Cash income Value-farm-produced- Year family-used products United Alabama United Alabama States States 1929 $1,650 $678 $287 $244 1930 1,252 459 243 218 1931 923 280 167 202 1932 666 222 155 162 1933 775 343 195 165 1934 928 399 156 195 1935 1,057 431 191 207 Average $1,036 $402 $199 $199 For the same period, however, the average farmer in Ala- bama produced for use in his own household products of as great a value as the average farmer of the United States produced for similar use. These data indicate the great need for increasing the cash income of farmers in the State. Such an increase may depend to a considerable extent upon legal restrictions and mar- ket limitations. At least the individual farmer will not likely be entirely free to produce for markets as he sees fit. On the other hand the relative shortage in cash income emphasizes the need for increasing production for household use despite its equality with the United States average. Such increase can be brought about by the individual farmer without regard to fed- eral policy or the action of other farmers. For this reason the Alabama farmer should still find it to his advantage to give much consideration to increasing production for his own table and household while considering his opportunity to increase his cash returns. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Physical Effects of Tillage as Related to Plant Growth. (R. E. Yoder).-Studies extending over one growing season were conducted to determine the influence of pulverization of Cecil clay on the growth and development of the cotton plant. Emer- gence of the cotton plants was most rapid and complete from Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station highly pulverized seed-beds; poor stands were obtained on the extremely cloddy seed-beds. Crust formation occurred on plots of all degrees of pulverization. Excessively pulverized seed- beds produced small, early-maturing plants. Extremely cloddy seed-beds produced rather large, late-maturing plants. Highest yields were obtained on seed-beds with intermediate degrees of pulverization. A close correlation was found to exist between capillary porosity of the seed-beds and the development of the cotton plants. There was a consistent tendency for seed-beds charac- terized by high non-capillary porosity to be associated with high yielding, early maturing cotton plants. Dynamic Properties of Soils as Applied to the Elements of Implement Design. Development of Reduced-Friction Surfaces and Materials for Experimental Plows. (F. A. Kummer). Results derived from the analysis of laboratory tests on adhesion of soil to metal surfaces were applied to the design and construc- tion of a number of experimental plow shapes. The object of these tests was to find a suitable material and a suitable shape for the so-called "non-scouring" plastic soils typical of the Black Belt Section of the State. Two definite principles were em- ployed in the design of these experimental shapes: a. The use of mechanical means, and b. The application of certain materials to produce better scouring. Among the shapes employing mechanical principles to trans- port the soil over the moldboard, a plow bottom having a set of eight wooden rollers in place of the moldboard gave promising results. The most effective of all types tried, however, was a slat-type bottom on which the original steel slats were replaced by impregnated wooden slats. Comparative field tests revealed that the wood-slat bottom produced considerably better scouring than the steel-slat bottom, especially in the higher moisture ranges where the "adhesion phase" friction becomes extremely evident. The Dynamics of Erosion and the Principles of Control. (E. G. Diseker).-I. Vetch Sown in Rows Compared to Broadcast Vetch for Erosion Control. Vetch sown broadcast on smooth plots having 5 per cent slope was 1.5 times as effective in con- trolling sheet erosion as was vetch sown on comparison plots in 18-inch rows; on plots having 20 per cent slope the broadcast vetch was 2.7 times as effective as the drilled vetch. All plots were on Cecil clay soil and the rate of seeding was 32 pounds of vetch seed per acre. II. A Method of Measuring Run-off Velocity of Water as Re- lated to Soil Movement Between Terraces. An attempt was made to correlate the velocity of run-off with the rate of soil move- Forty-Eighth Annual Report ment between terraces in the sheet erosion process on Cecil clay plots. The plots were planted to oats. The surface horizon soil was saturated with water immediately preceding each test. Artificial rain was then applied at a constant rate. Measure- ments of the rate of rise of the water in each calibrated cistern were used to calculate the rate of run-off. The time in seconds required for the rate of run-off to reach a maximum was assumed to be a measure of time required for water to travel the slope length of the plot. By dividing slope length in feet by time in seconds the average slope velocity was approximated. How- ever, it must be pointed out that the actual path of travel of the water was greater than slope length because of the meandering flow down the slope. Hence calculated velocities are probably somewhat low. Soil and water samples were taken at one-min- ute intervals to determine the rate of soil losses. The calculated slope velocity on an oat plot 5 feet long with a 5 per cent slope was .20 feet per second with a soil movement of 1.5 grams of soil per liter of run-off. The calculated slope velocity on an oat plot 50 feet long with a 20 per cent slope was .41 feet per second and the soil movement was 16.5 grams of soil per liter of run-off. III. Soil and Water Losses Measured at Terrace Outlets onStrip Cropped Areas. Specially constructed concrete cisterns were in- stalled at terrace outlets for measuring soil and water losses on a 31/2 acre field. Part of the field consisted of a clay soil and the other portion was an extremely sandy soil. Approximately the upper half of the area between terraces was in cotton during the summer, while the remaining portion was in soybeans. Dur- ing the winter months the cotton area was planted to oats and the soybean area was planted to hairy vetch. During a 13-month period only 21 rains amounting to 37.75 acre inches produced erosion. As much as two inches of rainfall of low intensity would frequently be absorbed. Most of the losses resulted from rains of high intensities, falling when the soil was practically saturated from previous rains. During the 13 months, one rain of 3.9 inches, which fell in 12 hours when the soil was quite wet, accounted for several times more soil losses than the other com- bined rains. The losses for the combined rains other than the 3.9 inch rain were only a few hundred pounds per acre. Greater losses occurred on clay plots than on the sandy plots. AGRONOMY AND SOILS Influence of Commercial 6-8-4 Fertilizer Applied at Various Rates Upon the Stand of Cotton. (J. T. Williamson, J. W. Rich- ardson, and R. W. Taylor).-In tests conducted on 117 Alabama farms in 1936 and 1937, commercial 6-8-4 fertilizer, applied at various rates up to approximately 600 pounds per acre, did not materially influence the stand of cotton. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station In these tests the farmer's fertilizer application was used for stand comparison with a 6-8-4 mixture which was applied on the same day and in exactly the same way. Stand data were ob- tained after cultivation was completed. Hill counts showed that there were about three per cent more hills of cotton where the farmer's fertilizer was used than where 6-8-4 fertilizer was used. However, this stand difference was not significant because the stands were practically perfect (8,300 hills per acre) in both cases. For example, in 57 experiments, where the farmer's fertilizer and the 6-8-4 were used at average rates of 345 pounds and 576 pounds per acre, respectively, there were 8,586 hills per acre where the farmer's fertilizer was ap- plied and 8,455 hills where the 6-8-4 was applied. Cotton Variety Tests. (H. B. Tisdale and J. B. Dick).-The average results for three years (1935-1937) of cotton variety tests conducted on the substations and experiment fields of Ala- bama show that Stoneville 5, D.P.L. 11A (Deltapine), Delfos (Washington), and Cook 144 are the most satisfactory varieties producing staple around one inch in length for sections of Ala- bama not infested with the cotton wilt disease. Other satisfac- tory varieties producing staple around 15/16 of an inch in length for non-wilt-infested sections are Cook 1627 and Cleveland. Clevewilt, Cook 144, and Dixie Triumph are the most satisfac- tory wilt-resistant varieties that produce staple around one inch in length. Wiregrass Cook and several strains of the Auburn Cook are satisfactory wilt-resistant varieties that produce staple around 15/16 of an inch in length. Varieties and Fertilizers in Relation to the Cotton Wilt Dis- ease. (H. B. Tisdale and J. B. Dick).-The results of studies for 1936 and 1937 on the relation of fertilizers and varieties of cot- ton to the wilt disease indicate that: 1. The evidence supporting the existence of different phy- siological strains of the wilt organism is rather weak. A differ- ence of virulence of the wilt organism under different conditions is indicated. The varieties of cotton tested may be grouped into four classes according to their resistance to the wilt disease; namely, resistant, highly tolerant, weakly tolerant, and suscept- ible. 2. The varieties of cotton tested differ in their response to applications of different amounts of potash. Resistant varieties are benefited more by moderate applications of potash than are the susceptible varieties. Susceptible varieties apparently re- quire more potash and are indifferent to excess applications, while resistant varieties require less potash and show injury and delayed maturity as a result of excess applications. A gradation of these requirements from the most susceptible to the most wilt- resistant varieties is apparent and shows a relationship between wilt resistance and ability to use potash. Forty-Eighth Annual Report A Comparison of Sulfate of Ammonia and Nitrate of Soda for Cotton on Limed and Unlimed Land. (E. L. Mayton).-These two nitrogenous materials have been used annually for cotton on limed and on unlimed plots of Norfolk sandy loam soil since 1925. Each material has been used to supply 60 and 30 pounds of nitrogen per acre on different plots. On limed plots sulfate of ammonia has produced slightly more cotton than nitrate of soda, but on unlimed plots it has produced an average of 300 pounds of seed cotton per acre less than nitrate of soda at the 60-pound rate and 143 pounds less at the 30-pound rate. Since 1934 sufficient lime has been applied on one half of each plot along with the fertilizers to correct the acidity of the current sulfate of ammonia applications. These lime applica- tions have resulted in approximately equal yields from the two sources of nitrogen during the last four years. A Comparison of Stable Manure, Nitrate of Soda, and Vetch as Sources of Nitrogen for Cotton and Corn in a Two-Year Ro- tation. (E. L. Mayton).-In an experiment on Norfolk sandy loam soil the above materials have been compared since 1925. Stable manure was used at the rate of 5 tons per acre, nitrate of soda at the rate of 325 pounds per acre, and vetch was turned under around the first of April. Phosphate and potash applica- tions were essentially equal on all plots of cotton or corn. The 13-year average results show that manure increased the yield of seed cotton 1,236 pounds per acre, nitrate of soda increased the yields 976 pounds, and vetch 978 pounds. Vetch crops on the cotton section in 1928 and 1932 were practically failures due to cold and to rabbit injury, respectively. The increases in corn yields were 31.5, 29.4, and 26.5 bushels per acre for manure, nitrate of soda, and vetch, respectively. Over the 13-year period three crops of vetch on the corn section were partially destroyed by rabbits or killed by cold. The Effect of Some Environmental Factors on the Oil Content of Cotton Seed. (D. G. Sturkie).-The oil content of cotton seed was determined by the refractive index method of Coleman and Fellows. Determinations were made on the seed of the crops of 1933, 1934, and 1935 from plots used in fertilizer studies and for the crops of 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, and 1934 from cotton grown on different soil types. The results show that the oil content may be affected by soil type, soil moisture, and fertilizers. Cotton grown on soil from the Mississippi Delta always produced oeed with a higher oil content than that grown on Norfolk sandy loam; cotton grown with sufficient moisture produced seed with a higher oil content than that grown with limited moisture; cotton grown without either phosphate or potash in the fertilizer produced seed with a lower oil content than cotton grown with an abundance of Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station phosphate and potash; and cotton fertilized with manure pro- duced seed with a higher oil content than those from cotton that was fertilized with a complete fertilizer from commercial ma- terials. The results show that the oil content of the seed may be af- fected by a number of factors that act separately or collectively. Further studies are being made in an effort to determine whether factors other than the ones studied may not also be affecting the oil content of the seed. Influence of Time of Planting Dallis Grass on the Stand Ob- tained. (D. G. Sturkie).-A plot of Dallis grass was planted on approximately the 15th of each month. Domestic seed were sowed at the rate of 40 pounds per acre. The results over a pe- riod of five years are shown in Table 2. The results show that any planting from October to March has produced satisfactory results all of the years. Plantings made in the other months have usually given very poor stands. TABLE 2.-The Summary of the Results of the Stands of Dallis Grass Ob- tained for Five Years from Planting Domestic Seed at Various Dates. Condition of grass one year after sowing seed Month sowed Year 1931-1932 1932-1933 1933-1934 1934-1935 1935-1936 September-- Poor Poor Poor Poor October Good Good Fair Poor Good November Good Good Fair Fair Good December Good Fair Fair Good Good January Good Fair Fair Good Good February Good Good Fair Good Good March Good Good Fair Good Good April Poor Fair Good Fair Fair May Good Fair Fair Poor Poor June Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor July Good Good Poor Poor Poor August Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Lysimeter Studies. Nitrogen Economy in Different Systems of Soil and Crop Management. (J. R. Taylor, Jr., and J. W. Tid- more.)-One hundred and seventy-four lysimeter tanks varying in depth from 12 to 36 inches are now in operation. One hun- dred and thirty-five of these were installed during the summer of 1936 and the remaining 39 were put into operation during the summer of 1937. Sixty-four of the tanks were filled with Hart- sells fine sandy loam, 63 with Decatur clay loam, and 47 with Norfolk sandy loam. One of the principal objectives in the study is to determine the amounts of nitrogen lost from the soil by leaching when soy- beans, cowpeas, and crotalaria are added to the soil in different ways. Ten'thousand pounds of green soybeans per acre (69.6 Forty-Eighth Annual Report pounds N) and enough cowpeas and crotalaria to give an equiva- lent number of pounds of nitrogen were added to the different soils. Sudan grass was grown in the tanks during the summer. Results to date show that more nitrogen was lost by leaching from the tanks receiving soybeans and cowpeas than from those receiving crotalaria. On the Norfolk soil, where soybeans and cowpeas were left on top of the ground during the winter and turned in the spring, approximately 14 per cent of the added nitrogen was lost by leaching. When these crops were turned in the fall approximately 38 per cent of the added nitrogen was lost. Very little of the added nitrogen was lost by leaching from the Decatur Soil. The losses from the Hartsells soil were inter- mediate between those from the Decatur and Norfolk soils. The Relation of Soil Types and the Distribution of Soils Sus- ceptible to Boron Deficiency by Over-Liming. (James A. Naftel). -The earlier work on lime-induced boron deficiency was con- ducted on a light-textured Coastal Plains soil and it seemed im- portant to determine the distribution of soils susceptible to such injury. Accordingly, 20 soils of widely different origin and properties were obtained for greenhouse cultures. Included in these were one soil from West Virginia and two from Vermont which had been reported to give negative results when exces- sively limed; no satisfactory explanation had been given for the results on these soils. Excessive lime caused boron deficiency on Cecil sandy loam, Davidson clay, and Davidson loam of the Pied- mont Plateau, Eutaw clay of the Black Belt, Norfolk sandy loam anid Ruston sandy loam of the Coastal Plains, DeKalb silt loam of West Virginia, and on the A-1 and A-2 horizon of a podsol soil from Vermont. On all of these soils the addition of boron partially or completely overcame the injurious effect of excess lime; on other soils an excess of lime had little effect on the growth of plants; and on a few the added boron was slightly harmful. The optimum rate of boron varied with soil texture and organic matter content. The effects of lime and boron on two soils are shown in Figure 1. Oxidation-Reduction Potentials of Soils. (N. J. Volk).-Ex- isting methods for the determination of oxidation-reduction (redox) potentials in soils were found inadequate for the studies contemplated at this station. A method of analyses, to be satis- factory, must meet the following requirements: 1. Bacterial action must be inhibited so as to prevent reduc- tion of the soil after it has been removed from the field. 2. The oxidation of reduced compounds existing in the soil must be prevented. 3. Substances existing as solid matter in the soil must not be appreciably dissolved. A41uhmnm A1qricitltowf 1 x.pcriu( t Sfttion I K l t ) v c I u i X t h u l o a ; i Ie h AU - tI P ( l f r ol te K \ ~ ,~ 1~ 1 Ti Forty-Eighth Annual Report 15 4. The redox potential obtained must be the same as that existing in the soil in its natural state, or be comparable to it so that one soil can be compared with another. It was found that samples of soil suspended in water out of contact with air, saturated with nitrogen gas, and cooled to be- tween 1 and 3 degrees centigrade would remain nearly constant in potential (Eh) for several days. Thus, samples of soil were kept under the above conditions until actual laboratory analyses were begun. All analyses were made in an atmosphere of nitro- gen, using quadruple blank platinum wire electrodes and glass electrodes simultaneously for the determinations of Eh and pH, respectively. Results not agreeing within 5 millivolts were dis- carded and the analyses repeated with new electrodes. Forty-four areas of soil scattered over the northern three fourths of Alabama were studied for seasonal fluctuations in Eh and moisture. They were sampled every two weeks for one year and at three depths; namely, 0 to 8 inches, 8 to 16 inches, and 16 to 24 inches. The vegetative cover was three types, (a) culti- vated crops, (b) grass, and (c) woodland. A summary of all the results shows that the arable Alabama soils vary in Eh only about 60 millivolts during the entire season and that this variation is directly related to the moisture con- tent of the soil. That is, as the soil moisture rises the Eh rises and vice versa. This is believed to be due at least in part to variations in the amount of oxygen carried into the soil by rains and to a depletion of oxygen by bacterial action during the pe- riods between rains. Since Alabama soils as a whole vary only about 60 millivolts during the entire season it seemed quite possible that such small changes would not appreciably affect plant growth if oxygen was supplied. To test this, a series of sand cultures was set up with different plants; nutrient solutions were used having identi- cal nutrient values, ample oxygen present, but varying in po- tential from 285 to 524 millivolts. These nutrient solutions were forced through the sand cultures at such a rate that their Eh was not changed; thus, plants could be grown at potentials vary- ing from 285 to 524 with a reasonable degree of accuracy. When properly used, hydroquinone was found to be satisfactory for changing the potential of the nutrient solution. It changed the Eh as follows: Composition of Solution Eh of solution at pH 6.0 Nutrient solution + no hydroquinone 524 Nutrient solution + 10 p.p.m. hydroquinone 357 Nutrient solution + 20 pp.mn. hydroquinone 338 Nutrient solution + 40 p.p.m. hydroquinone 320 Nutrient solution + 80 p.p.m. hydroquinone 307 Nutrient solution + 160 p.p.m. hydroquinone 290 Nutrient solution - 320 p.p.m. hydroquinone 285 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Thirteen different plants were grown in the greenhouseat different potentials as described above and in no case could a difference in growth be detected by weighing or by observation. The plants grown were sorghum, Sudan grass, sunflower, corn, cotton, alfalfa, vetch, crotalaria, blackeyed peas, soybeans, string beans, tomatoes. It is concluded from these experiments that Eh is not a factor in plant growth on arable Alabama soils. This conclusion seems reasonable because of the fact that different elements in the same state of oxidation or reduction have different potentials, and therefore it cannot be said that any given soil is in an oxi- dized or reduced state unless the relative concentrations of the active substances contributing to the observed Eh are known. A study of active soil oxygen would likely prove to be more profitable than a study of Eh, and it is planned to continue the study in that direction. Elements Required in Small Quantities for Plant Growth in Soils. (Anna L. Sommer).-Corn and turnip plants were grown in 16 different soils. All cultures received applications of nitro- gen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and sulfur. The different fertilizer treatments were as follows: 1. The above elements were furnished by the addition of purified salts; 2. The same as 1 but with the addition of very small amounts of boron, zinc, fluorine, bromine, iodine, molybdenum, copper, manganese, co- balt, and nickel; 3. The same as 2 but with the addition of mag- nesium; 4. Chilean nitrate was substituted for purified sodium nitrate; 5. Chilean nitrate, superphosphate, and purified potas- sium chloride; 6. All purified salts excepting superphosphate; 7. All purified salts excepting potassium chloride (commercial muriate) ; 8. Superphosphate, muriate of potassium, and purified sodium nitrate. In the case of corn, only one soil gave a su- perior crop when the trace elements were added. No additional yield was obtained by the addition of magnesium. In the case of the second crop, turnips, several soils responded to the addi- tion of the trace elements. In some cases there was, a marked increase in dry weight and in some cases where there was no significant increase in dry weight only those cultures to which these elements had been added showed no discoloration or other abnormalities when the turnips were cut. The trace elements added as impurities in commercial fertilizers were insufficient to protect the plants where the deficiency was marked. No ad- ditional improvement was obtained by the addition of magnesium. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, DAIRYING, AND POULTRY A Study of the Transmission of Factors Related to the Eco- nomical Production of Swine. Variation in the First Generation. (J. C. Grimes).-An attempt is being made to increase the effi- ciency of gains in a herd of Duroc Jersey hogs by selecting and Forty-Eighth Annual Report mating the hogs in each generation that make the most economi- cal gains. Eight litters, consisting of 70 pigs, were fed in in- dividual pens to a weight of 225 pounds during the past year. The birth weight of pigs in the different litters varied consider- ably. The lightest litter averaged 1.9 pounds per pig at birth and the heaviest litter averaged 3.11 pounds per pig at birth. The slowest gaining pig of the 70 required 267 days to reach a weight of 225 pounds and the fastest gaining pig required only 162 days to reach a weight of 225 pounds. The greatest amount of feed required by any pig to make 100 pounds of gain was 413 pounds and the smallest amount required by any pig was 307 pounds. There was quite a variation among individual pigs within the same litter both in length of time required to reach 225 pounds in weight and in the amount of feed required for 100 pounds of gain. The least variation in the amount of time elapsing from birth to 225 pounds in weight in any litter was 17 days, and the greatest variation in any litter was 73 days. The smallest varia- tion in feed required for 100 pounds of gain in any litter was 32 pounds, and the greatest variation was 91 pounds. Beef Production in East Alabama. (J. C. Grimes).-Seventy acres of land consisting mainly of waste land, abandoned cotton land, and woodland was used as a pasture for beef breeding cows during the summer of 1936 and 1937. This pasture furnished grazing for an average of 19 cows from April 1 to November 1 each year. The grasses and clovers in this pasture were volunteer and consisted mostly of hop clover, lespedeza, carpet grass, and Dallis grass. The average annual return in the form of beef (live weight) produced from this herd was 5,699 pounds worth $359.16. The average annual cost of winter feed was $98.52. After the win- ter feed cost was deducted the average return per acre of land was $3.72. During the winter of 1936 each cow consumed 169 pounds of velvet beans, 80 pounds of cottonseed meal, and 1.77 tons of sorghum silage. The cost of these feeds was $6.29 per cow. During the winter of 1937 each cow consumed an average of 80 pounds of cottonseed meal, 635 pounds of peanut hay, and 1,284 pounds of silage. The cost of these feeds was $4.19 per cow. Peanut Hay as a Roughage for Fattening Steers. (J. C. Grimes).-Farmers in Southeast Alabama make a large amount of peanut hay as a by-product of commercial peanut production. This hay varies a great deal in quality, much of it being weather damaged and stemmy. Most of this hay is sold to speculators for from $4.00 to $6.00 per ton. It is then transported to other parts of Alabama and to the surrounding states where it is re- sold to consumers. The transportation charges on this hay are usually more than the first cost of the product. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station As a general rule the most profitable way to market cheap feed such as this hay is to feed it on the farm where it is grown. An experiment was started December 4, 1936 to determine (1) the value of peanut hay as a roughage for fattening beef steers and (2) the value of grinding peanut hay for fattening steers. Thirty head of feeder steers, grading from common to med- ium were purchased, divided into three uniform lots and fed for a period of 112 days as follows: Lot I. Silage and cottonseed meal (check). Lot II. Ground peanut hay and cottonseed meal. Lot III. Unground peanut hay and cottonseed meal. The same amount of cottonseed meal was fed in each of the three lots but the roughage in each lot was fed according to the appetites of the steers. The silage fed in Lot I was made of sorghum cane after most of the heads had been removed. It was, therefore, rather low in quality. The peanut hay used was of medium quality. All lots of steers received marble dust and salt, free choice. The steers in Lot II made the largest daily gains, sold for the highest price per pound, and returned the greatest profit above feed cost of any lot. Peanut hay and cottonseed meal as used in this experiment gave very good results for fattening steers. The gains were con- sidered very satisfactory in both the ground and unground hay lots. While the relationship of the price of feed to the price of cattle which existed during this experiment was more favor- able to the cattle feeder than can usually be expected, the re- sults suggest that farmers who raise peanut hay should be able to feed it to steers at a profit during the average year. After paying for the steers, the cottonseed meal, and the mineral, the'return for each ton of hay fed in Lot II was $27.17 and in Lot III, $23.47. Although the silage and meal fed steers returned a profit above feed cost they gained rather slowly dur- ing the experiment, probably due in a measure to the fact that the silage contained very little grain. In this experiment ground hay was worth $3.70 more per ton than unground hay for fattening steers. Peanut Hay for Wintering Beef Breeding Cows. (J. C. Grimes).-In order to determine the value of peanut hay for wintering beef cows, 18 cows were divided into three lots of six cows each and fed as follows from December 4, 1936 to March 1, 1937, inclusive. Lot I. Peanut hay alone. Lot II. Peanut hay and one pound of cottonseed meal per head daily. Lot III. Sorghum silage and one pound of cottonseed meal per head daily (check). Forty-Eighth Annual Report All cows had access to marble dust and salt. The cows were dry during the winter and all of them dropped calves in March and April. All calves were born alive and grew normally, l- though some of the calves were rather small at birth. The cows in Lot I which received 12 pounds of peanut hay per head daily lost 40 pounds each during the winter. Cows in Lot II, which received 11 pounds of peanut hay plus one pound of cottonseed meal per head daily, gained 6 pounds each during the winter. Cows in Lot III, which received 40 pounds of silage and one pound of cottonseed meal per head daily, lost 91 pounds each during the winter. When peanut hay was charged at $5.00 per ton, silage at $2.00 per ton, and cottonseed meal at $30.00 per ton the cost of wintering cows for 87 days was as follows: on hay alone, $2.54 per head; hay and cottonseed meal, $3.60 per head; and silage and cottonseed meal, $4.64 per head. Eleven pounds of peanut hay and one pound of cottonseed meal per head daily were considered the most satisfactory ration used when the cost of the ration and the condition of the cows were taken into account. Kudzu as a Grazing Crop for Beef Cattle. (J. C. Grimes) A four-acre kudzu pasture which was planted in February 1932, was grazed with beef cows and heifers during the summers of 1934 to 1937 inclusive. The animals were turned into the pas- ture during June and were removed the last part of July or the first part of August. The pasture was stocked at the rate of 1.25 animal units per acre. By referring to Table 3 it will be seen that one acre of kudzu furnished grazing for one cow for a period of 73.5 days each summer. The average amount of beef produced from one acre each season was 115 pounds, live weight. Apparently the stand of plants has not been damaged by the grazing. In fact, the carrying capacity of the pasture and TABLE 3.-Summary-Grazing Kudzu with Beef Cattle. Year 1934 1935 1936 1937 Four-yeai average Number of acres kudzu grazed 4 4 4 4 4 Dates grazed 6/26-8/27 6/3-8/3 5/28-7/27 6/17-8/9 -- Animal units car- ried per acre 1 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.25 Cow days grazing per acre per season 2 82 54 77 81 73.50 Beef produced (gain) per acre, pounds 82 86 130 163 115.00 1 An animal unit is the equivalent of one mature cow. 2 A cow day is the equivalent of one mature cow f or one day. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station the amount of beef produced per acre have increased each sea- son. Kudzu as a Grazing Crop for Hogs. (J. C. Grimes).-One Duroc Jersey sow with her six suckling pigs and four shoats were placed on one acre of kudzu pasture June 9, 1937. In ad- dition to the kudzu this group of hogs received a total of 10 pounds of corn and tankage daily during the first 14 days. After the first 14 days no feed was fed and the animals were forced to live on what they obtained in this kudzu field. The sow and pigs were removed from the kudzu pasture on July 9 after hav- ing been in this field for 30 days. The four shoats remained in the field 30 days longer, or until August 9. Plenty of kudzu was available throughout the period. The weights of the animals at the beginning and the close of the test are given below: Animal Initial Weight Final Weight Sow 215 pounds 149 pounds Six suckling pigs 70 pounds 141 pounds Shoat No. 31 72 pounds 75 pounds Shoat No. 29 59 pounds 43 pounds Shoat No. 55 39 pounds 45 pounds Shoat No. 53 34 pounds 43 pounds It was observed that the hogs did not relish the kudzu. They ate all the weeds which they could find in the pasture before they began eating the kudzu. The Use of Ice in Curing Meat on the Farm. (W.E. Sewell). -In 10 tests conducted throughout the year, pork from hogs weighing approximately 200 pounds was successfully cured by boning the meat, chilling it with ice and dry curing. The chill- ing period was 24 hours followed by packing the meat dry in a curing mixture composed of salt 20 pounds, sugar 5 pounds, and saltpeter 41/2 ounces. The meat was repacked at the end of three days. Except for rancidity, which developed in some of the meat cured in July and August, the method was successful in each trial. Tests of the length of time required for this cure showed that one week was sufficient. In six tests, pork cut from 200-pound hogs by standard meth- ods and chilled with ice required four weeks for successful dry curing. In these tests meats given a preliminary chilling treat- ment with ice, cured successfully when held at temperatures as high as 500 F. for the remainder of the curing period. Studies of the Vitamin B Complex. The Relation of Unsat- urated Oils and Fatty Acids to Rat Acrodynia or Vitamin B 6 Defi- ciency. (W. D. Salmon).-Rats receiving a fat-free diet supple- mented with carotene, vitamin D concentrate, thiamin, riboflavin, and a limited amount of aqueous extract from brewer's yeast 20 Forty-Eighth Annual Report which had been heated 24 hours at 120-1300 C (dry heat) de- veloped a severe form of erythematous dermatitis. The addition of corn oil, linseed oil, wheat germ oil, soybean oil, or the fatty acids of linseed oil cured or prevented the dermatitis. If the heated yeast extract was omitted the oils were much less effec- tive in curing the condition than when the yeast extract was included. The methyl esters of linoleic or linolenic acids ap- peared to be less effective in curing the dermatitis than the nat- ural oils. These esters, however, entirely prevented the onset of the dermatitis, when they were fed with the heated yeast extract. Cod liver oil and coconut oil had relatively little activity. The use of corn starch instead of sucrose as the carbohydrate in the basal diet did not prevent the onset of the dermatitis unless the heated yeast extract was supplied. Nicotinic acid alone or in combination with the other supple- ments had no effect on the dermatitis or the growth of the rats. Pathological Conditions Associated with Lack of Vitamin B Complex. Studies of the Peripheral Nerves in Acute and Chronic Vitamin B 1 Deficiency in the Rat. (C. O. Prickett, W. D. Salmon and G. A. Schrader).-The effect of a deficiency of Vitamin B 1 upon the peripheral nerves of rats was studied by the polarized light method. There was a significant difference between an acute and a chronic deficiency in their effects upon the peri- pheral nerves. In the acute deficiency the nerves showed little observable departure from the normal other than a variable edema affecting both the myelin sheath and the axis cylinder. In the chronic deficiency the peripheral nerves showed marked departures from the normal; in the most severe cases some of the fibers became completely isotropic and others showed marked enlargement and large bulbous areas along their course. Figure 2 shows these changes. A Study of Quality in Soybeans and Cowpeas for Human Food. (W. C. Sherman). I. Carotene Content of Green and Mature Soy- beans and Cowpeas.-Fifty-two varieties of soybeans and nine va- rieties of cowpeas, in the green and mature stages, were analyzed for carotene. The fresh green soybeans ranged from 257 to 705 micrograms per 100 gin. sample, with an average of 428; the ma- ture soybeans ranged from about 20 to 243 micrograms of carotene per 100 gin. sample. The average carotene content of the fresh green cowpeas was only 186 micrograms per 100 gm. fresh sample, with a variety range from 140 to 230; the mature cow- peas varied from about 10 to 50 micrograms per 100 gm. The carotene values represent total carotene since no attempt was made to separate the individual components. Most varieties of soybeans in the fresh green state are a very good source of vitamin A, having about three or four times as much carotene as cowpeas. So much of the carotene of cow- 21 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station FIGURE 2.-Enlargement and segmentation of fibers in peripheral nerve of rat in chronic vitamin B, deficiency. 10 micron section, Polarized Light method. peas is destroyed during the ripening and maturing that the mature cowpeas are of practically no value as a source of vita- min A. Many varieties of soybeans, however, retain significant amounts of carotene when mature. II. The Effect of Oils on the Utilization of Carotene.-Young rats which were fed a vitamin A-free, low-fat diet until they developed ophthalmia and ceased growing gave a less pro- nounced growth response to beta carotene administration than was obtained when mature soybeans were fed as a source of vitamin A, although the soybeans were fed at levels supplying equivalent amounts of carotene. The rear feet and the fur on the backs of the carotene-fed rats developed a scaly condition which was not apparent in the animals receiving soybeans. Certain fats, which had been treated with fuller's earth to remove carotene, greatly increased the growth response of vita- min A-deficient rats to carotene administration, and the scaly condition was entirely cured or prevented. Best growth was obtained when the carotene was supplemented with soybean oil and linseed oil. Corn, cottonseed, and wheat germ oils pro- duced slightly less growth than the former oils but all five of the Forty-Eighth Annual Report oils entirely alleviated the scaliness. Coconut oil or butter fat, however, had no apparent beneficial effect on growth or scali- ness. The most active oils, soybeans and linseed, were frac- tionated by means of saponification. The non-saponifiable frac tions of these oils were inactive, but the methyl esters of the mixed fatty acids of soybean oil cured the scaliness and increased the growth. Studies on the Nutrition of Dogs. (C. J. Koehn). I. Studies on Dry Dog Rations.-Various dry rations were formulated and fed to dogs to determine the simplest and most economical ration which would be nutritionally complete. A ration composed of yellow corn, skimmilk powder, bone meal, and salt will not al- low continued growth in dogs. This is contrary to a widespread belief that dogs can be raised on corn bread and buttermilk alone. Dogs may be raised on this mixture if they are allowed to forage for themselves, but this is not the case when dogs are confined in a kennel. Such a mixture is low in protein and deficient in the essential amino acid cystine. When 20 per cent of wheat shorts was included in the above mentioned ration at the expense of the yellow corn, much better growth was ob- tained. This growth was probably due to the relatively high cystine content of the shorts. Maximum growth, however, was not obtained until the protein content of the ration was raised by the addition of protein concentrates. When soybean meal, fish meal, meat scrap, or cottonseed meal was used in such an amount as to raise the protein content to 20 per cent, the dogs developed normally. No toxic effect was observed when the ration con- tained 27 per cent of cooked cottonseed meal. These rations, except when containing fish meal as a source of protein, must be supplemented with cod liver oil or some other source of vita- minD to prevent rickets. II. A Comparison of the Nutritional Requirements of Dogs and Rats. In order to set up a biological standard for commercial canned dog foods, it is necessary to evolve a simple test for deter- mining the nutritive value of the food using a small laboratory animal such as the rat. This brings up the question as to whether or not data obtained by the use of the rat can be ap- plied to canine nutrition. Rats receiving different brands of commercial canned dog foods showed a great variation in growth. Certain of these same dog foods were fed to fox hounds to determine wheth- er comparable results would be obtained. It was found that those foods which produced the best growth in rats pro- duced normal, healthy dogs, whereas those foods which pro- duced the poorest growth in rats did not sustain life in dogs. There is, therefore, some correlation between the growth rate of rats receiving a dog food and the nutritive value of that food 2.3 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station for dogs. Whether or not this correlation is close enough to draw fine distinctions is being determined. III. The Preparation of Samples of Canned Dog Food for Chemical Analysis. Since there is no official method for the sam- pling and determination of the moisture content of commercial canned dog foods, the following method was devised. The con- tents of four cans of the dog food to be analysed were homo- genized in a Hobart mixer. This emulsified the separated layer of oil and distributed the larger particles of food evenly through- out the mass. Three 100-gram samples of this material were dried to constant weight at 102 +- 0.50 C. and the percentage of moisture calculated. The three samples were then combined, finely ground, thoroughly mixed and redried at 1020 C. for three hours. The material was cooled in a desiccator and stored in tightly stoppered bottles. This composite sample was used for all subsequent proximate chemical analyses and the percentage composition reported on the wet basis calculated from the aver- age moisture content of the three individual samples. The ac- curacy of this method of sampling was shown by very close checks of the samples. The Supplemental Value of Peanuts to the Chick and Laying Rations. (G. J. Cottier and D. F. King).-The object of this experiment was to study the effect of peanut products on inter- ior egg quality. A hen on an all-mash ration is not consistent in the nature of fat she deposits in her eggs. Hens on the same ration vary in the nature of fat they deposit in their eggs. No correlation existed between the amount of fat in the feed and associated measurements of interior quality of eggs. Incubated eggs had slightly higher readings than eggs not incubated. The Inheritance of Resistance to Fowl Paralysis (Neuro- lymphomatosis). (C. D. Gordon).-Data collected during the past two years seem to indicate that certain individuals and fam- ilies are definitely more resistant to fowl paralysis than others, and that selection of resistant individuals and lines tends to re- duce the incidence of the disease. Artificial inoculation studies indicate that a definite infection causes the various manifesta- tions of paralysis. BOTANY AND PLANT PATHOLOGY The Mycosphaerella Disease of Winter Peas, and Diseases of Winter Peas and Vetches Caused by Ascochyta Species. (J. L. Seal).-The life cycles of these organisms have been satisfac- torily worked out, showing that they may live from year to year in the soil, in old vetch and pea plants, and in and on the seed. Seed produced under dry conditions of the western states are fairly free of the organisms, but carry enough that under favor- Forty-Eighth Annual Report able conditions the diseases may spread and become epidemic. Organisms living from year to year under local conditions may frequently play an important role. Crop rotation and seed treatment offer only partial control of the organisms. Permanent control seems to be based upon finding a winter hardy, highly disease-resistant plant. Workers at other stations have reported varieties of canning peas that show resistance to these organisms. Albrecht (Agronomy De- partment) and the writer have made a systematic search for species, sub-species, and varieties of Pisum and have tested them for resistance. These tests have been made under greenhouse and field conditions, some varieties having been tested a num- ber of times. Under greenhouse conditions the symptoms of these diseases varied considerably from the symptoms produced by the organisms in the field. So far as could be determined there was no marked difference among the various varieties as to resistance to the organisms. In the field, however, winter hardiness was markedly different and in general the varieties that showed the greater winter hardiness showed less disease. Some selections of Austrian winter peas showed more winter hardiness and less disease than any of the canning or field varities. The Seasonal Activity of the Bulbs of Wild Garlic as Related to its Control by Creosote-Kerosene or Other Sprays. (E. V. Smith).-Wild onions began germinating in late August and continued until less than 2 per cent of the bulbs were dormant in December. Although primordia of new bulbs were discern- ible in the mother bulbs in December none was found outside the tissues of the mother bulbs before February. Consequently there is a period of six to eight weeks in the middle of the win- ter when few bulbs are dormant. Most effective spraying with a 10-90 mixture of creosote and kerosene can be done during this period, since this mixture is a contact spray. It reaches the bulbs by "creeping" down the heavily cutinized leaves. Experi- ments indicated that a 5-95 mixture was practically as effective as the 10-90 mixture but neither pure kerosene nor 10 per cent creosote emulsified in water gave satisfactory results. The Life History of Nut Grass, Cyperus Rotundus L., as Re- lated to Possible Methods of Control. Tillage Eradication Meth- ods on Norfolk Sandy Loam Soil. (E. V. Smith, Botany and E. L. Mayton, Agronomy and Soils).-The active growing season of nut grass at Auburn extends from about the first of April until about the last of October. Practically complete eradica- tion of nut grass was effected by plowing (flat-breaking) the soil at intervals of 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks during two successive grow- ing seasons or by breaking the land once in the spring with a "twister" and plowing thereafter with a "sweep" at intervals of two weeks during two successive growing seasons. 25 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Oats or other winter crops may be grown on land being plowed during the summer for nut grass eradication. HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY The Effect of Various Sources of Nitrogen upon the Yield of Vegetable Crops. (L. M. Ware).-In 1934, an experiment was started to determine the behavior of the more common vegetable crops when fertilized with different sources of nitro- gen, with different combinations of nitrogen, and with different acid-forming materials to which have been added varying amounts of dolomitic limestone to effect different degrees of neutralization. The standard application of fertilizer supplied 90 pounds per acre of nitrogen. The first application was made in the fall of 1934; applications have been repeated for the fall and spring of 1935, 1936, and 1937. The records given in the table on turnips and tendergreen were taken from the fall crop of 1936. Other records were from the spring crop of 1937. Four hundred and fifty pounds of nitrogen per acre had been applied to each plot by the fall of 1936 and 540 pounds per acre by the spring of 1937. The results with different vegetable crops show rather convincingly that the source of nitrogen may become the deter- mining factor in the yield of certain vegetable crops where the same material or combinations of materials have been used con- tinuously on the same soil for some time. The behavior of the crops seems to be very closely related to the degree of acidity developed in the soil by the various materials. As a general ob- servation it may be said that the base-forming materials, nitrate of soda and calcium cyanamid and also the combinations that leave a basic soil reaction such as basic slag with ammonium sulphate, have given satisfactory yields; acid-forming materials have given quite unsatisfactory yields with the crops reported. The use of dolomitic limestone as a neutralizing material has in practically every instance increased the yield when used with acid-forming materials. In many cases, however, the yield from different acid-forming materials, although the potential acidity has been neutralized, has not been as high as from nitrate of soda. In the case of spinach very unsatisfactory yields came from the use of either ammonium sulphate or urea regardless of the amounts of limestone used. Muscadine Grape Studies. (Hubert Harris and L. M. Ware). -In 1933 a planting of the newer varieties along with the older varieties of both brown and purple types of muscadines was es- tablished. The plants were spaced 20 feet apart in 12-foot rows permitting 173 vines per acre. A vertical trellis system consist- ing of four wires was used for support. 26 TABLE 4.-Yields of Different Vegetables Fertilized with Different Sources and Combinations of Sources of Nitrogen. Treatment Pounds per plot 2 Sources of Nitrogen Nitrate of soda Calcium cyanamid Ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphate Ammonium sulphate Urea Urea Urea Ammonium sulphate + basic slag Urea + basic slag Ammonium sulphate + nitrate of soda Ammonium sulphate + nitrate of soda Ammonium sulphate + nitrate of soda Ammonium sulphate + calcium cyanamid Ammonium sulphate + calcium cyanamid Ammonium sulphate + calcium cyanamid No N Degree of neutraliza- tion 1 none-basic none-basic none 50% 100 150 0 100 200 Basic Basic 50 100 150 50 100 150 pH of soil fall 1936 5.8 6.3 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.4 5.4 5.8 6.4 6.8 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.8 6.0 5.9 5.7 Lettuce 19.4 19.9 1.6 6.9 11.9 12.4 10.5 17.3 15.3 15.3 12.3 13.4 21.6 16.1 12.4 14.5 21.5 6.9 Carrot Cabbage Beets Spinach ITurnip 12.9 14.7 1.5 5.4 9.9 10.2 10.5 12.9 9.0 11.5 3.5 8.8 14.5 11.3 10.0 14.7 16.3 7.1 15.1 19.1 12.0 11.3 15.3 14.3 9.6 15.3 15.0 18.6 11.7 10.5 14.5 18.9 14.4 20.3 13.9 4.2 16.2 12.8 0.1 4.1 7.4 10.7 6.8 16.8 12.3 17.4 16.8 13.3 16.6 16.2 9.1 13.5 14.2 6.9 5.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.5 3.7 4.7 5.0 5.4 2.9 0.3 0.9 1.1 0.4 25.4 16.5 13.5 25.8 20.8 19.5 20.4 21.9 24.8 23.0 20.2 20.5 28.6 16.5 26.3 30.3 29.7 15.8 Tender- green 21.3 18.0 13.3 16.3 20.3 16.0 1 16.5 19.0 21.5 18.0 21.0 23.5 20.8 20.0 26.8 " 26.8 25.5 16.3 1 The degree to which the theoretical acidity developed by acid-forming materials has been neutralized by dolomitic limestone or varying amounts of base-forming materials. 2 Average yield in pounds per 21.75 linear feet of space repeated in quadruplicates. 28 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station In the table are given the dates of ripening, the yields for the third and four years, and the cost of harvesting for each of the 17 varieties under test. The average yield of the dark varieties has been approxi- mately 50 per cent above the yield of the light or brown varieties. Yields by the fourth year ranged from 1.2 tons to 5.2 tons per acre, while the cost of harvesting ranged from $7.32 to $24.00 per ton. The Hunt and Memory ranked first in yield and were low in cost of harvesting. The cost of harvesting was lowest for the November, a variety ripening very uniformly and over a short period permitting clusters to be harvested at a picking. TABLE 5.-Ripening Dates, Yields, Cost of Harvesting, and Size of Clusters of Different Muscadine Varieties at Auburn. Yieldsperacre Average No. Cost Harvest dates (pounds) number berrieshar per ton Variety 1937vest to har-1937 tohar- 1936 1937 per per re- vest quart cluster auired vest Purplish Varieties Misch Aug. 16-Aug. 30 2,919 6,010 244 9.0 6 $15.40 Hunt Aug. 16-Aug. 30 4,458 10,378 231 8.5 7 12.78 Irene Aug. 23-Sept. 10 1,377 6,787 176 5.5 5 8.40 LaSalle Aug. 19-Aug. 30 2,498 5,036 358 9.8 6 13.36 Memory Aug. 19-Sept. 10 5,886 8,773 198 5.3 6 10.97 Qualitas Aug. 23-Sept. 10 2,844 6,595 202 7.0 6 9.09 San Jacinto . Aug. 19-Sept. 10 3,678 7,718 245 10.5 6 13.33 Thomas Aug. 19-Sept. 2 2,550 7,486 268 10.0 6 14.14 James Aug. 23-Sept. 2 1,917 4,521 342 8.0 5 12.78 Eden Aug. 19-Aug. 26 2,263 4,598 390 10.8 5 9.93 Flowers Aug. 23-Sept. 10 2.908 6,150 293 10.0 6 10.51 Brown or Light Varieties Brownie Aug. 23-Sept. 10 1,261 3,913 417 17.5 5 $24.04 San Rubra Aug. 26-Sept. 10 2,550 5,233 326 12.0 4 12.09 Scuppernong Aug. 23-Sept. 10 760 2,652 240 5.0 5 15.27 Stuckey Aug. 30-Sept. 10 1,202 3,019 170 7.5 5 12.25 Lucida Aug. 30-Sept. 10 1,597 3,621 127 10.0 4 8.15 November Sept. 10-Sept. 17 4,055 3,528 238 12.2 2 7.32 1-173 plants per acre. 2 Rate of pay 10 cents per hour. Influence of Short-day and Long-day Treatment on the Flow- ering of Chrysanthemums. (E. W. McElwee) .- The behavior of a few common varieties will serve to illustrate the general re- sponse of chrysanthemums to short-day and long-day treatments. When the variety Rose Glory was shaded with black cloth from 5 p. m. to 7 a. m. in three lots, the first beginning August 1, the second beginning August 15, and the third beginning September 1, each being shaded until the flowers showed color, flowering occurred on September 23, October 5, and October 11, respec- tively. This variety flowered normally on October 20. When the plants were lighted by 100-watt Mazda lamps from sundown Forty-Eighth Annual Report to 10 p. m. from August 30 to October 20, flowering occurred on November 26. These two treatments, combined with the normal treatment, extended the cutting period for this variety from approximately 12 days to 78 days. The earliest of the 15 varieties on test was Rose Glory which normally flowers on October 20 and the latest variety, Orchid Beauty, which flowered on November 15. These varieties were cut when given normal treatment from October 20 to November 27 or over a period of 38 days. When the short-day treatments were combined with the normal treatment, these varieties were cut from September 23 to November 27, an extension of the cutting periods to 65 days. When the short-day and long-day treatments were com- bined with the normal treatment, these varieties were cut from September 23 to January 5, an extension of the cutting period to 104 days. Influence of Different Periods of Artificial Illumination on Flowering of Asters. (E. W. McElwee).-Results obtained in 1936 indicated that asters flowered earlier when the seedling plants were given additional illumination than when the plants were shaded with black cloth during the later stages of growth. Following this lead, an experiment was started in 1937 in which early-flowering to late-flowering varieties of asters were planted af different times and given additional illumination for 4 to 8 weeks at different times during the seedling stage to determine the planting date, time of applying additional illumination, and the length of application necessary to give the best results in earliness and quality of flowers. The following results were obtained in this experiment: 1. The early-flowering varieties showed the least amount of response to treatment with additional illumination. Progressive- ly greater response was shown by later flowering varieties. 2. The earliest flowers were produced by plants that were planted February 3 and given additional illumination immediate- ly for 4 weeks and planted in the cloth house April 14. As a result of this treatment early-flowering varieties averaged 49 days, mid-season varieties 57 days, and late-flowering varieties 85 days earlier in flowering than the same varieties in the check treatment. This treatment, however, materially reduced the number of flowers per plant, stem length, and per cent of salable flowers. 3. The most satisfactory results were obtained from seed planted February 17, given 4 to 6 weeks of additional illumi- nation from March 3 and 17 and planted in the cloth house April 14. In this treatment, early-flowering varieties averaged 33 days, mid-season varieties 46 days, and late-flowering varie- ties 74 days earlier in flowering than these varieties in the check treatment. This treatment did not materially reduce the pro- duction or the quality of the flowers. 29 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Underplanting Hardwoods with Pines. (D. J. Wedde.11).- During January, 1933, a series of experimental pine plantings was established under a rather heavy stand of hardwoods. The hardwoods, mostly oak and hickory, were approximately 6 feet high at the time the pines were planted. Plots of the 4 most important southern pines-slash, loblolly, longleaf, and short- leaf-were established. During January, 1937, after the pines had had four seasons growth, certain of the plots had all of the competing hardwood vegetation removed, the hardwoods by this time being approxi- mately 12 feet tall. Height records for all the plots in the ex- periment were taken at the time the cleaning was made and again in December, 1937. The average height for each plot, at the time of cleaning and one year later was determined. The following table presents the growth records for the 4 pine species and also shows a comparison of the underplanted pines with others of the same age growing in the open. TABLE 6.-Height and Growth of Pines Planted Under Hardwoods and Planted in Open Field. Aver. height 1937 Growth in 1937 Average height of Species underplanted pines underplanted pines trees grown on adja- Cleaned Uncleaned Cleaned Uncleaned cent open field-1937 feet feet feet feet feet Shortleaf 2.77 2.52 0.78 0.64 4.80 Longleaf 0.37 0.38 0.23 0.22 2.17 Loblolly 4.86 5.01 1.34 1.60 7.93 Slash 5.91 4.26 1.23 1.13 7.67 Although severely handicapped by the competing vegeta- tion, pines have shown considerable ability to overcome this dis- advantage. The results so far indicate the possibility of chang- ing a hardwood stand to a more valuable pine stand. In chang- ing an area from hardwoods to softwood it would appear that a skeleton planting of 150 to 200 trees per acre instead of the usual 680 to 1,200 trees would probably be the desired practice. By planting only a relatively few trees per acre the cost of plant- ing, thinning, and cleaning would be materially reduced and still the area would be carrying enough trees for the final crop. SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS Germination of Crotalaria Seed Planted in Dry Soil. (J. F. Duggar).-Unscarified seed of Crotalaria spectabilis were planted in extremely dry soil which was covered when rain threatened. Most seeds that had lain unsprouted in dry soil came up prompt- ly when water at varied rates and intervals was supplied, begin- ning about two to four weeks after planting. The germination percentages were 45, 57, and 84 per cent in three tests in 1937 30 Forty-Eighth Annual Report and were 61 and 63 per cent in two tests in 1936. These results were in strong contrast to a maximum below 8 per cent in most tests of both years for seed supplied with varied amounts of moisture from date of planting. These results suggest that the best time to plant crotalaria may prove to be when the soil is too dry to induce prompt ger- mination. Hot Water Treatment of Crotalaria Seed as a Substitute for Scarification. (J. F. Duggar) .- Treatment of unhulled seed of Crotalaria spectabilis with hot water greatly hastened and intensi- fied germination in soil fairly well supplied with moisture; tem- peratures of 135, 150, 160, 170, and 1800 F. were tested for periods varying from two hours to ten minutes. The most effec- tive temperature was 1500 F.; seed thus treated for 20 minutes gave in 28 days a total germination of 95 per cent and for 40 minutes 97 per cent. One hour's treatment at 1500 F. slightly reduced and two hours' treatment practically ruined the germi- nation capacity of the seed. From crotalaria seed, treated at 1500 F. for 20 minutes, there were separated and planted fractions that showed varied visible effects the second day after treatment. Those seeds having short sprouts when planted came up to the extent of 58 per cent; those planted as hard, black, and unswollen seeds, 80 per cent; and the check lot not scalded, only 4 per cent. This was within a period of 30 days after planting in Norfolk soil which was never permitted to become extremely dry. Frequency of Cutting Lespedeza Sericea. (J. F. Duggar) On Norfolk sandy upland a stand of sericea planted in 1934 averaged in its second and third years of root growth the follow- ing acre yields of nearly pure sericea hay or of seed: From a single, late, annual mowing, 586 pounds of unhulled seed; From two annual cuttings, each made at a height of about 18 inches, a total of 5,789 pounds of hay annually; and from cutting sericea whenever it reached a height of about twelve inches, that is three times a year, 4,692 pounds. ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY Vegetable Weevil. (J. M. Robinson).-Records on egg depo- sition of the vegetable weevil showed variations from 6 to 302 eggs per beetle from November 21 to December 31. The aver- age number of eggs per beetle was 85 over the 41 day period. In laboratory experiments, sodium fluosilicate, magnesium arsenate, lead arsenate, killed 50 per cent of the larvae in 20 hours and 100 per cent in 30 hours; cube root killed 50 per cent of the larvae in 20 hours and 100 per cent in 40 hours. Calcium 31 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station arsenate and derris killed 50 per cent of the larvae in.30 hours and 100 per cent in 44 hours. Even though cube and derris killed at a slower rate, they are within a satisfactory period of time, particularly when the difference of safety to human beings is considered. Life History and Control of the Cowpea Curculio, Chalcoder- mus aeneus. (F. S. Arant).-Laboratory and field tests were conducted to determine the efficiency of pyrocide to the cowpea curculio. A mixture of pyrocide and talc, 1-41/, was more ef- ficient in laboratory experiments than undiluted pyrocide. A 1-412 and a 1-9 mixture of pyrocide were equally effective in field experiments, but these materials produced only 25.94 per cent control. The Control of Citrus Insects with Oil Emulsions. (L. L. English) .- Bordo-oil was more effective than Bordo or Bordo- sulphur as a pre-growth spray for depressing purple scale, (Lepidosaphes beckii Newm.). Bordo-sulphur, lime sulphur plus wettable sulphur, and Bordo, as post-bloom sprays, all depressed purple scale. Bordo, however, was the least effective. All plots receiving fungicides produced less "scaly" fruit than those from which the fungicides were omitted, indicating that Bordo mixture is not conducive to the propagation of purple scale, as commonly believed. It merely does not depress scale as much as fungicide combinations containing sulphur or oil. The maxi- mum control of purple scale, 97 to 98 per cent scale-free fruit, can be produced with two applications of oil. Further tests with 25 spray programs for the control of sour scab and the principal insect pests substantiate the results previously reported. Two fungicides, one oil spray, and one sulphur application, either dust or spray, were necessary for the production of clean fruit. Two applications of oil (July and September) materially retarded ripening of the fruit and apparently reduced the yield. Frequent application of lime sulphur plus wettable sulphur produced the earliest maturing fruit and gave the best control of scab. These treatments did not satisfactorily control purple scale and red spider. For the control of sour scab, two applications of 1-1-100, 2-2-100, 4-4-100, and 6-6-100 Bordo combined with 5 pounds of wettable sulphur per 100 produced 4.5, 3.2, 3.0, and 1.5 per cent scabby fruit, respectively. The untreated check produced 11.4 per cent scabby fruit. The Toxicity of Derris to White Fly Larvae and Purple Scale. (L. L. English).-In outdoor laboratory experiments, positive toxicity of derris to white fly larvae and purple scale was dem- onstrated by comparing the effectiveness of the powdered root with an extracted "marc" of the same sample. The data indi- cate that a dosage as high as 4 parts of derris to 1,000 parts of dilute oil emulsions may depress the efficiency of the spray be- 32 Forty-Eighth Annual Report cause of the effect of the derris on the emulsion. Among several emulsions tested as carriers for derris the most effective was prepared from a 41 (Saybolt) viscosity oil and dried blood albu- men spreader by the California Tank-mix method. Two years work on triplicate plots in the field failed to substantiate the laboratory experiments. The Effect of Oils on Satsuma Trees. (L. L. English).-Pot- ted satsuma trees were used to test the effect of oils of various viscosities when applied at concentrations which are effective against purple scale. The five oils ranged in viscosity from 41 to 99 seconds, Saybolt, while the degree of refinement was es- sentially uniform. The experiments showed that the greatest defoliation and highest quantity of dead wood were produced by the oils of intermediate viscosity, i. e. 54 to 64 seconds. The data also indicate that it would be less harmful to trees to spray with a 41 viscosity oil at a concentration of 7 per cent than to spray with a 99 viscosity oil at a concentration of 2 per cent. Farm Ponds. (H. S. Swingle (Zoology-Entomology), E. V. Smith (Botany), and G. D. Scarseth (Agronomy and Soils))- Greenhouse experiments with cultures of various plankton algae indicated that 4, 6, or 8 p.p.m. of N and 2 p.p.m. of P produced nearly maximum growth and came the nearest to complete utilization of both elements. Increase in potash concentration above 2 p.p.m. of the element did not result in increased plank- ton production. When ammonium sulfate was used as the source of nitrogen, the addition of lime was necessary to prevent excessive acidity. From 12 to 16 p.p.m. CaCO 3 were required to keep the acidity above pH5 when 6 p.p.m N were used. The use of either basic slag or calcium carbonate gave good results when used at this rate. Increased amounts of basic slag greatly decreased plank- ton growth, apparently because it removed carbon dioxide from the water. Experiments conducted in concrete pools, using different rates of fertilizer, indicated that small applications at short in- tervals throughout the growing season gave much greater plank- ton production than heavier applications at longer intervals. Of all the methods tested, the most economical was to apply small amounts of fertilizer at weekly intervals until the water became green with plankton, and then to make further applications only when necessary to maintain this green growth. The follow- ing amounts of fertilizer per acre per application gave good re- sults in these experiments: 40 lbs. sulfate of ammonia 60 lbs. superphosphate (16 %) 5 lbs. muriate of potash 30 lbs. basic slag 33 Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station The above materials were applied by broadcasting over the surface of the water. The unfertilized storage pond produced mixed species of fish at the rate of 134 pounds per acre, while the fertilized brood pond produced these same species at the rate of 578 pounds per acre. Fertilized pools produced the fresh-water shrimp (Palae- monetes exlipes) at the rate of from 300 to 495 pounds per acre. The food of these shrimp was found to be almost entire- ly phytoplankton. The application of fertilizers to the soil of the pond bottom before flooding with water appeared to show some promise as an economical method of fertilization. The rate of growth of bluegill bream was found to be gov- erned largely by the food available and the number of bream present in a pond. In stocking new ponds with fry or fingerling bream it was found necessary to limit the number of bream if rapid growth was desired. If the pond was fertilized, 1,500 bream per acre were the maximum needed, while for unfertilized ponds, 400 bream per acre were sufficient. From an unfertilized pond (1.8 acres) stocked with 10 brood bluegill bream, 10 brood crappie, and 10 brood yellow bullhead catfish, the following numbers of each species were recovered when the pond was drained in the fall: bluegill bream, 20,615, crappie 3,848, catfish 668. At the rate at which this pond can support these various species, there are enough bream to stock over 50 acres of unfertilized water, enough crappie to stock over 75 acres, and enough catfish to stock over 10 acres. Chub-sucker minnows appeared unsuitable for shallow ponds, as the majority of them died during hot weather when the water temperature reached 890 F. Naias, an under-water plant, was without value as a food for small bream. Myriophyllum, Cabomba, and bladderwort would not grow in the alkaline water of the concrete pools.