S FORTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT
Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1934
OF THE
SAgricultural Experiment Station
OF THE
Alabama Polytechnic Institute
AUBURN
M. J. FUNCHESS, Director
AUBURN, ALABAMA
A. 0"Go41M
CONTENTS
Trustees ------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
Station Staff -------------------------------------------------------------- 2
New Publications----I----------------------------------------------------- 5
Agricultural Economics------------------------------------------------ 10
Agricultural Engineering--------------------------------------------- 11
Agronomy and Soils ----------------------------------------------------- 12
Animal Husbandry ----------------------------------------------------- 19
Botany and Plant Physiology ---------------------------------------- 24
Entomology ------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Horticulture and Forestry ------------------------------------------- 28
Special Investigations ------------------------------------------------- 30
ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
TRUSTEES
H is Excellency, B. M . M iller, President ................................
A. F. Harman, Superintendent of Education ............................
W . H . O ates (F irst D istrict) .. ................ 
.......................
Charles Henderson (Second District) ------------------ 
-----------------
T. D . Sam ford (T hird D istrict) .......................................
H . H . C onner (T hird D istrict) ........................................
H . D . M errill (F ourth D istrict) .......... 
.......................... ..
C . S . C u lv er (F ifth D istrict) .. ...... ... .... 
. .. .... .... .. . ... . ... ... . . .
J. A . R og ers (S ixth D istrict) . .. ... .... ... ... 
.. .. ... .. .... . .. . . .... . ..
P . S. H aley (S even th D istrict) .................. 
........... ..........
C . W . A shcraft (E ighth D istrict) .....................................
V ictor H . H anson (N inth D istrict) ....................................
- Ex-Officio
Ex-Officio
..... Mobile
-------Troy
-----Opelika
---- Eufaula
-- Anniston
... Gadsden
-Gainesville
--- Oakman
--- Florence
Birmingham
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
STATION STAFF
ADMINISTRATIVE COMMITTEE
John Jenkins Wilmore, B.M.E., M.E., LL.D.
Bolling Hall Crenshaw, M.E., LL.D.
Luther Noble Duncan, M.S., LL.D.
M. J. Funchess, M.S., Director of Experiment 
Station
W. H. Weidenbach, B.S., Executive Secretary
P. 0. Davis, B.S., Agricultural Editor
Mary E. Martin, Librarian
Sara Willeford, B.S., Agricultural Librarian
Agronomy and Soils:
M. J. Funchess, M.S.
J. W. Tidmore, Ph.D.
Anna L. Sommer, Ph.D............
G. D. Scarseth, B.S.
J. A. Naftel, Ph.D.
R. E. Yoder, Ph.D. ...............
H . B. Tisdale, M .S................
J. T. Williamson, B.S.
**R. Y. Bailey, B.S. ................
D. G. Sturkie, Ph.D...............
*F. L. Davis, M .A ..................
**G. H . Jester, B.S. ................
F. E. Bertram , B.S. ..............
E. L. M ayton, B.S. ...............
J. W . Richardson, B.S............
**J. R. Taylor, B.S. ------- --------
E. C. Richardson, B.S..............
Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Poultry:
J. C. Grimes, M.S.
W. D. Salmon, M.A.
G. A. Schrader, Ph.D.
C. 0. Prickett, B.A.
**G. A. Trollope, B.S.
D. F. King, M.S.
W. E. Sewell, M.S.
G. J. Cottier, M.A.
J. G. Goodman, B.S.
Agronomist
Soil Chemist
..... Associate Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Assistant Soil Chemist
................... Assistant Soil Chem ist
---- -Associate Plant Breeder
Associate Agronomist
.................... Assistant Agronom ist
.................... Assistant Agronom ist
-- -- --- -- - -- --_- -- -- --- -- --- - S oil C h em ist
...... Assistant in Agronomy
..... Assistant in Agronomy
......... Assistant in Agronomy
.................. Assistant in Agronomy
.................. Assistant in Agronomy
---.................... Graduate A ssistant
Animal Husbandman
Animal Nutritionist
Associate Animal Nutritionist
Associate Animal Nutritionist
Poultry Husbandman
Assistant Poultry Husbandman
Assistant Animal Husbandman
Assistant in Animal Husbandry
Graduate Assistant in Animal Nutrition
*Assigned by the State Department of Agriculture and Industries.
**On leave.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Botany and Plant Pathology:
J. L. Seal, Ph.D.
G. L. Fick, M.S.
E. V. Smith, M.S.
Agricultural Economics:
**J. D. Pope, M.S.
B. F. Alvord, M.S.
**C. M. Clark, M.S.
Edith May Slights
Agricultural Engineering:
M. L. Nichols, M.S.
J. W. Randolph, M.S.
A. Carnes, M.S.
**N. W. Wilson, B.S.
E. G. Diseker, B.S.
I. F. Reed, M.S.
Entomology:
J. M. Robinson, M.A.
H. S. Swingle, M.S.
L. L. English, Ph.D.
F. S. Arant, M.S.
Special Investigations:
J. F. Duggar, M.S.
Horticulture and Forestry:
L. M. Ware, M.S......
C. L. Isbell, Ph.D.
**0. C. Medlock, M.S.
R. W. Taylor, M.S.
T. P. Whitten, B.S.
Substations:
Fred Stewart, B.S.
R. C. Christopher, B.S.
J. P. Wilson, B.S.
K. G. Baker, B.S.
C. L. McIntyre, B.S.
**Otto Brown, M. S.
Harold Yates, B.S.
Plant Pathologist
Associate Botanist
Assistant Botanist
Agricultural Economist
Associate Agricultural Economist
Assistant Agricultural Economist
Statistical Assistant
Agricultural Engineer
Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Assistant Agricultural Engineer
Assistant Agricultural Engineer
Assistant in Agricultural Engineering
Assistant in Agricultural Engineering (Coop. U.S.D.A.)
Entomologist
Associate Entomologist
Associate Entomologist
Assistant Entomologist
Research Professor of Special Investigations
.......... Horticulturist
Horticulturist
Assistant Horticulturist
Assistant Horticulturist
Graduate Assistant
Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation,
Belle Mina, Ala.
Superintendent Sand Mountain Substat on,
Crossville, Ala.
Superintendent Wiregrass Substation,
Headland, Ala.
Superintendent Black Belt Substation,
Marion Junction, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Black Belt Substation
Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation,
Fairhope, Ala.
Acting Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation,
Fairhope, Ala.
CHANGES IN STATION STAFF DURING 1933-34
Appointments:
T. P. Whitten, B.S.
Resignations:
J. G. Goodman, M.S.
E. E. McElwee, M.S.
**On leave.
Graduate Assistant in Horticulture
Graduate Assistant in Animal Husbandry
Graduate Assistant in Horticulture
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
NEW PUBLICATIONS
Pope, James D.-Principal Sources and Uses of State and
County Revenues in Alabama. Alabama Agricultural Experiment
Station Circular 63. In the fiscal year 1932-33 property tax, busi-
ness tax, and the combined gas and automobile tag tax each ac-
counted for slightly less than one quarter of the State revenues;
federal aid accounted for nearly 19 per cent. The remaining 10
per cent came from earnings of the Convict Department and
minor sources. About 40 per cent of the expenditures were for
highways and 22 per cent for education. About 12 per cent of
the expenditures were for debt service other than that associated
with highways.
Property taxes accounted for about 80 per cent of the county
revenues. Of the combined state and county expenditures 38.7
per cent was spent for highways and 28.9 per cent for educa-
tional purposes.
King, D. F., and Trollope, G. A.-Force-Molting of Hens and
All-Night Lighting as Factors in Egg Production. Alabama Ag-
ricultural Experiment Station Circular 64. The results of com-
bining force-molting and artificial lighting to increase the profits
from hens by this system of management, together with general
suggestions on force-molting of hens and the use of all-night
lighting for increased egg production are given in this circular.
Arant, F. S.-Time of Turning Legumes and Planting Corn
to Avoid Injury from the Southern Corn Root Worm. Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 65. This circular gives
the result of six years of experimental work with corn planted
at weekly intervals following the turning of winter legumes
March 15, April 1, and April 15. The most serious injury oc-
curred in corn planted following the turning of legumes March
15 and the least injury following-the turning April 15. No
serious injury occurred to any corn planted at Auburn April 30
or thereafter following the turning and disking of winter le-
gumes on or before April 15.
King, D. F., and Trollope, G. A.-Simplified Rations for
Farm Chickens. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Cir-
cular 66. This circular compares the result of feeding simplified
and complex rations to chicks and hens. According to the re-
sults obtained farmers may secure good results by feeding their
chickens simple home-mixed rations.
Tidmore, J. W., and Simmons, C. F.-The Use of Limestone
in Mixed Fertilizers. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Circular 67. This circular presents the results of a study which
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
show the advantages of using limestone as a filler and the amount
of limestone required to neutralize the acidity developed by the
mixed fertilizers used in Alabama.
Grimes, J. C., Sewell, W. E., and Cottier, G. J.-Some Factors
Affecting the Cost of Raising Pigs to Weaning Age. Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station Circular 68. This circular re-
ports the results of raising 147 litters of pigs to weaning age on
the Experiment Station farm. The number of pigs raised in a
litter affected materially the feed cost per pig and the weight
per pig at weaning age.
Grimes, J. C., Sewell, W. E., and Cottier, G. J.-Feeding,
Docking, and Castrating Spring Lambs. Alabama Agricultural
Experiment Station Circular 69. A report is given on five trials
in feeding grain to spring lambs and four trials in docking and
castrating spring lambs. Lambs which were fed grain in ad-
dition to their mother's milk returned a small profit above the
feed and marketing cost. Docking and castrating lambs did not
prove profitable in this experiment.
Pope, James D. and Wingate, Henry T.-Factors Affecting
Costs of Producing Pork in Southeast Alabama. Alabama Agri-
cultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 240. Data were collect-
ed from 99 farms in 1927 and from 80 in 1928. All of these
farms produced hogs fattened largely on peanuts.
Two factors, namely, yield per acre of crops "hogged-off"
and adjustment of the number of hogs to the feed supply, exerted
an outstanding influence on costs of production. As a two-year
average the farms having above the average yield of these crops
and above the average number of hogs per ton of feed, produced
pork at about $5.50 per hundredweight of marketable gain;
those farms which were below average in these two respects
produced pork at approximately $8 per hundredweight.
Easter, E. C., and Nichols, M. L.-Dairy Refrigeration on Ru-
ral Electric Lines. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 241. This bulletin reports the results of studies
made as a part of the experimental work on rural electrification
conducted in cooperation with the Alabama Power Company
and with dairymen in different sections of the State. The work
was based upon studies of the requirements for proper refriger-
ation of dairy products, as determined by bacteriologists and
public health officials. Its objects were to study: (1) small
dairy refrigeration units and results obtained from their use; (2)
the adaptability of electrically operated equipment to the refrig-
eration needs of the dairies.
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
Medlock, O. C.-Effect of Different Temperatures, Humid-
ities and Free Ammonia on Pecans in Storage. Proc. 32nd Cony.
of Nat. Pecan Assn., p. 21. 1933. This paper presents the results
of a four-year study of factors which affect the storage of the
pecan. Pecans of the Stuart and Frotscher varieties were stored
at low, high, and uncontrolled humidity and at room tempera-
ture, 50
0
F., 40
0
F., and 32
0
F. at all humidities. At room tem-
perature and at 50
0
F. both varieties kept well in storage from
harvest until March, after which time nuts stored at high hu-
midity deteriorated rapidly. Nuts kept in a good marketable
condition at 32
0
F. for one year and longer under conditions of
low humidity and uncontrolled humidity. Nuts stored at 40
0
F.
kept better than those stored at 50
0
F. but the results indicated
that a temperature lower than 40
0
F. was necessary to keep pe-
cans in marketable condition for one year. Uncured nuts kept
as well in storage at low temperatures and at low humidity as
cured nuts. Molding of kernels seems to be the most serious
problem in pecan storage. Loss of high quality may occur be-
fore rancidity develops. Small amounts of free ammonia in
the storage room caused darkening of the kernels.
Prickett, C. O.-The Effect of a Deficiency of Vitamin B
Upon the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems of the Rat.
American J. Physiol. 107:459-70. 1934. A study has been made
of the effect of a deficiency of vitamin B upon the nervous tissues
of the rat.
Osmic acid and Sudan III preparations of peripheral nerves
failed to show any evidence of myelin degeneration.
In the central nervous system, 75 per cent of the deficient
animals showed disseminated foci of hemorrhage and cell dam-
age of one or both sides in the pons and medulla. The struc-
tures most consistently affected were the nucleus of Deiters, the
chief vestibular nucleus, the nucleus of Bechterew, and the soli-
tary nucleus. The extent of the damage appeared to vary with
the length of time the animal was left on experiment after the
development of severe symptoms.
These findings, together with the recent work on the physi-
ological action of vitamin B, indicate the brain as the site of the
lesion responsible for the symptoms observed in vitamin B de-
ficiency in rats.
Salmon, W. D., and Goodman, J. G.-Studies of the Raw
Egg-White Syndrome in Rats. Jour. Nutrition, 8, 1-24. Raw
egg-white, either fresh or dried, as the sole dietary source of
protein for rats produced fur-like or woolly hair, alopecia, ex-
foliating dermatitis, hyperemia, skin-hemorrhages, blepharitis,
stomatitis, salivation, variable edema and erythema of the feet,
symptoms of nervous disturbance, and finally hypochlorhydria
and some anemia.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
The disease was readily produced by diets containing only
18 per cent of raw egg-white (dry basis).
If the diet did not contain more than 18 per cent of raw egg-
white, the symptoms were prevented or cured by brewer's yeast,
dried liver, milk or the extracted residue of brewer's yeast or
liver, but were neither prevented nor cured by extracted casein,
baker's yeast, extract or hydrolyzed residue of brewer's yeast,
white corn, gelatine or dilute hydrochloric acid.
Coagulation of fresh egg-white by heat and extraction of the
coagulum with 51 per cent alcohol rendered it innocuous. The
concentrated extract had a harmful effect but failed to produce
the severe symptoms caused by raw egg-white.
The data indicate a positive harmful factor in raw egg-white
which is antagonized by the protective substances rather than
the existence of a deficiency. Many of the symptoms are simi-
lar to those of vitamin G-deficiency and of pellagra but appar-
ently are not due to an anti-vitamin G action of the harmful
factor.
Scarseth, G. D., and Tidmore, J. W. The Fixation of Phos-
phate by Soil Colloids. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 26:138-151. 1934.
Electrodialized colloids, from soils varying widely in silica-ses-
quioxide ratios, were prepared so that they contained different
amounts of Ca and were treated with 6 kinds of phosphates.
The amount of phosphate fixation was determined by extracting
with N/10 and N/500 H2S0
4 
solutions. The phosphate-fixing
capacity varied with the silica-sesquioxide ratios. Fixation of
the phosphate from H
3 
(P0
4
)
3
, CaH P0
4
, and Na
3
PO
4 
was about
equal in the colloids low in sesquioxides when the Ca saturation
was below 100 per cent. CaHPO
4 
and Na
3
PO
4 
were fixed to a
slightly less extent than H
3
P0
4 
in the colloids high in sesqui-
oxides. Ca (H
2
PO4)
2 
was fixed slightly more than was H
3
PO4 in
all the colloids. Ca
3 
(PO
4
)
2 
was about 10 per cent less avail-
able than Ca (H
2
PO4)
2 
in the low sesquioxide and about equal to
it in high sesquioxide colloids. Rock phosphate was 20 per cent
less available than Ca (H
2
PO4)
2 
in the low sesquioxide and slight-
ly more available than Ca (H2PO4)2 in the high sesquioxide col-
loids. The higher the sesquioxide content the smaller was the
influence of the degree of Ca saturation below 100 per cent on
the amount of phosphate fixed by the colloids. On the other
hand, the tendency was for more phosphate to be soluble when
the colloids contained a large excess of Ca.
Scarseth, G. D., and Tidmore, J. W. The Fixation of Phos-
phates by Clay Soils. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 26:152-162. 1934.
Acid heavy clay soils and calcareous heavy clay soils were treat-
ed in greenhouse pots with six different forms of phosphates at
three different rates. The phosphates were added to the soil at
the time of planting, 365, 180 and 30 days before the planting of
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
sorghum. The rate, degree of fixation, and the efficiency of the
various phosphates were measured by the plant yields and
soluble phosphates in the soil. The most soluble phosphates
were fixed more rapidly. Relatively insoluble phosphates were
fixed slowly but were inefficient in supplying available phos-
phorus to the plants. The rate of fixation was greatest at first
and decreased rapidly with an increase in the time of contact
with the soil. CaCO
3 
applied to the acid soil greatly decreased
the availability of readily soluble phosphates and the plant
yields when applied immediately before planting; whereas after
equilibrium was established, CaCO
3 
was no longer present in the
soil, the availability of the phosphates increased. CaCO
3 
also
depressed the yields when the soluble phosphate was low and
increased the yields when the soluble phosphate was high in the
case of different acid soils. The relative efficiencies of the differ-
ent phosphates as determined by plant yields were 100, 117, 110,
103, 57, 25 for Ca (H
2
P0
4
)
2
, superphosphate, NH
4
H2PO
4
, CaHP0
4
,
Ca
3 
(P0
4
) 
2
, and FePO
4
, respectively.
Sturkie, D. G.-A Study of Lint and Seed Development in
Cotton as Influenced by Environmental Factors. Jour. Amer.
Soc. Agron. 26, 1-24. 1934.
This paper reports the results of five years' study of the in-
fluence of soil type, climatic conditions, and soil moisture on the
length of lint, weight per boll, weight per seed, weight of lint
per seed, lint index, number of seed per boll, and percentage of
lint.
Tidmore, J. W.-Ammonium Hydroxide versus Calcium Ni-
trate for Cotton Seedlings. Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron. 25, 619-622.
1933. It was shown that ammonium hydroxide added to concen-
trated solution cultures was as efficient for cotton seedlings as
calcium nitrate, whereas ammonium hydroxide added to dilute
solution cultures was entirely unsatisfactory for cotton seedlings.
Tidmore, J. W., and Williamson, J. T.-Experiment with Ni-
trogenous Fertilizers and Limestone. American Fertilizer, Nov.
18, 1933. The results of a large number of field tests showing 
effi-
ciency of various sources of nitrogen with and without limestone
are reported. The acidic nitrogenous fertilizers without lime-
stone were less efficient for cotton on Norfolk sandy loam than
sodium nitrate, whereas they were as efficient when the land
was limed.
Ware, L. M.-Polishing, Bleaching, and Dyeing the Pecan.
Proc. 32nd. Conv. of Nat. Pecan Assn., p. 42. 1933. The pecan
was found to have on the surface of the shell three layers ex-
posed, each of which bleached quite differently. To produce a
uniform product it was found necessary to remove all layers
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
down to the schlerenchymous cells. In the laboratory, these
layers were satisfactorily removed by wire brushes or by rota-
tion in drums containing sharp sand. Pecans when polished
were satisfactorily bleached by dipping them first for four min-
utes in a solution of sodium hypochlorite containing 2 per cent
active chlorine, and then for one minute in a 1/4 per cent sulphur-
ic acid bath. It was found that a bleached pecan to be accept-
able to the pecan trade had to be dyed. Basic brown, 1/100
per cent; chrysoidine, 1/250 per cent; and phosphine 1/16 per
cent produced a light natural tint which seemed to satisfy the
trade.
Ware, L. M.-Influence of Fertilizer Treatment on Certain
Characteristics of the Irish Potato. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci.
30:485-490. 1933. Results of laboratory, field, and storage
studies are reported. In the laboratory studies it was found
that as the rate of application of a complete fertilizer was in-
creased the percentage of reducing sugars, total sugars, total
solids and starch in the tubers decreased and the electrical re-
sistance of the juices was reduced. Correspondingly, field and
storage studies showed a definite increase in yield and plant
vigor and a progressive decrease in the shrinkage of tubers in
storage with each added amount of fertilizer. Differences in
tubers which could be attributed to a given element or to a given
source of material were small and inconsistent.
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Problems of Economic Readjustment in the Black Belt of
Alabama. (C. M. Clark and J. D. Pope).-A study of the ex-
tent and nature, the relative profitableness, and the possibilities
and limitations of various economic adjustments underway in
the Black Belt area showed: that cotton production continues
to overshadow other enterprises in importance, especially in
those areas where acre-yields were relatively high; that dairy
farming was more prominent in those sections nearest large
whole milk markets; that cotton farming was conducted by col-
ored renters while dairy, beef cattle, and hay farms were largely
operated by white owners.
The results of the study showed that returns from cotton
farming were very low, averaging a loss of $11 for the operator's
labor; while dairy farming was decidedly more profitable than
any other type of farming, averaging $644 for the operator's
labor. On the average, beef cattle farming was the least profit-
able of all types of farming; but in those cases where cattle
farmers had a low investment per acre, a small proportion of
total investment in buildings, produced a large proportion of
feed required, and produced a high value of beef per acre, the
returns compared favorably with other types of farming. In
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
cotton farming the returns for the operator's labor tended to
increase as the number of acres in cotton and yield per acre be-
came greater. In dairy farming larger labor incomes were ob-
tained by the farmers having the larger dairy herds and getting
the greater number of gallons of milk per cow.
The results of the study showed that adjustments to utilize
more profitably the agricultural resources of the area depended
to a considerable extent on the possible productive efficiency in
the different types of farming. Increased efficiency in cotton
production is limited by the low productivity of Black Belt soils,
by their lack of response to normal applications of commercial
fertilizer, by the presence of the boll weevil, and by the small
acreage handled per operator. Possibilities of shifting rapidly
from cotton production to dairy and beef cattle production are
limited by lack of skilled management, by large capital outlay
required, by unsatisfactory markets, by unsatisfactory tenure
agreements, and by low productive efficiency.
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Studies of Plow Action. (M. L. Nichols and I. F. Reed)
Field and laboratory studies of the reactions of various soils to
moldboard plows were made to develop practical tillage meth-
ods and equipment for the Black Belt or prairie region of Ala-
bama. The studies showed that the pulverization of soil was
accomplished by two sets of shear planes at right angles to each
other. The first set of planes is formed by the advancing wedge
of the plow. The planes extend forward from the moldboard at
an angle of approximately 450 to the line of travel and upward
at an angle of 450 to the horizontal. The second set of planes
is at right angles to those above mentioned and is produced by
the concave surface of the moldboard as the soil is pushed up
during inversion. These findings together with the evaluation
of the shear values of various soils and the method of measuring
moldboard shapes furnish a basis for selection and design of
American or "digger" type moldboards.
Relationship of Shape of Moldboard to Shedding. (R. D.
Doner and M. L. Nichols).-It was shown in a previous report
that the common American moldboard exerted a uniform pres-
sure on the soil in a direction parallel to the shear planes.
Mathematical studies of the forces acting along the path of
travel of a soil particle passing over the surface of the plow
showed that the normal pressure reached a maximum at the
point of greatest 
curvature. Field observations 
showed that
sticking occurred at this point. The studies also Showed that
the pressure could be reduced on the same type of surface by
moving the area of greatest pressure nearer the tip of the wing
of the moldboard and that satisfactory turning could still be
11
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
maintained by increasing the vertical angle of the share. This
shape of moldboard was tried and found to be much superior for
scouring in the sticky soils of the State; consequently, the period
during which these soils can be plowed was extended, the draft
reduced, and the general effectiveness of plowing increased.
Erosion Control Studies. (E. G. Diseker).-Rye and vetch
were compared as winter cover crops for erosion control. Both
crops were planted late in the fall. A perfect stand of vetch
and approximately an 85 per cent stand of rye were obtained.
The vetch was found to be much more effective as a soil-saving
crop than the rye, even after allowance was made for variations
in stand.
Strip-cropping experiments in the controlled plots and in the
field again showed the value of this practice from a soil-saving
viewpoint. In a field of cotton half of which was in 20-foot
strips of soybeans, it was found that there was no appreciable
increase in time required to tend the cotton or in time required
to make the hay.
Effects of Soil Crusts on Cotton Stands. (A. Carnes).-Soil
crusts, which frequently form on many of the soils of the State
and seriously affect the stands of cotton, were studied under
controlled or measured conditions in the laboratory and field.
These studies showed that soil crusts were produced by the in-
filtration of soil particles under the action of water and subse-
quent cementation on drying. It was found that the cotton
plants could exert sufficient force, when planted under proper
conditions, to break all crusts studied. Under conditions where
crusts were commonly formed, the soil beneath the seed was not
sufficiently compacted to provide a footing for the young plants
to break the crust. Laboratory and field experiments in which
the soil was compacted under the seed indicated that soil crusts
were not a serious handicap in getting a stand of cotton.
AGRONOMY AND SOILS
The Old Rotation Experiment. (R. Y. Bailey).-This ex-
periment, which was started in 1896, included plots that have
been cropped continuously to cotton with and without legumes,
a two-year rotation of cotton and corn with legumes, and a three-
year rotation of cotton, corn, and oats with legumes. Until
1932 Plots 1 and 2 were cropped continuously to corn with le-
gumes being grown and turned under on Plot 1. The crop on
these two plots was changed to cotton in 1932 and the legumes
discontinued on Plot 1 in order to study the residual value of the
legumes turned under over the 35-year period. All plots in the
experiment have been fertilized uniformly with phosphate and
potash.
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
Average yields for the fourteen-year period, 1920-1933, in-
clusive, show that the plot planted continuously to cotton with
legumes produced more than twice as much as the plot planted
continuously to cotton without legumes. Where legumes were
used in the cropping system the average yields of cotton for the
two-year rotation of cotton and corn and the three-year rotation
of cotton, corn, and oats, respectively, were 1,060 and 943
pounds of seed cotton per acre. The corn yields for the respect-
ive rotations were 21.6 and 22.2 bushels of corn per acre.
A comparison of the yields from Plots 1 and 2 over the two-
year period, 1932-1933, show that Plot 1 has produced an aver-
age of 1,007 pounds of seed cotton per acre more than Plot 2
which has never been planted to legumes. This difference in
yield is due to the residual effect of winter legumes.
Sources and Rates of Nitrogen for Oats. (R. Y. Bailey).
Five different sources and five different rates of application of
nitrogen were compared for oats on Norfolk sandy loam soil over
the period 1927-1934. The different sources (nitrate of soda,
ammonium sulfate, calcium nitrate, urea, and Leunasalpeter)
were compared at a rate equivalent to 200 pounds of nitrate of
soda per acre. Each source of nitrogen produced approxi-
mately the same yield, the average for the different sources being
32.6 bushels of oats per acre, an increase of 22.9 bushels over the
plots which received no nitrogen.
Nitrate of soda was used at different rates that varied by in-
crements of 100 pounds per acre through 500 pounds. Each
increment of 100 pounds through the 300-pound rate increased
the yield of oats by approximately 10 bushels per acre. The
400- and 500-pound rate produced only slightly more than the
300-pound rate.
Rate of Fertilizing Cotton With and Without Poisoning. (R.
Y. Bailey and J. M. Robinson). -Four different rates of a
4.8-9.6-4.8 fertilizer made from nitrate of soda, superphosphate,
and muriate of potash were compared for cotton on Norfolk
sandy loam at Auburn over the ten-year period, 1924-1933.
Treatments were duplicated on two sections. Cotton on one
section was dusted for the control of boll weevil when the aver-
age infestation had reached 10 per cent; the cotton on the cor-
responding section was not dusted.
The rates of fertilizer application were varied by incre-
ments of 500 pounds per acre through 2,000 pounds. Every
third plot-was left unfertilized as a check plot. Boll weevil in-
festation was heavy enough during six years of the ten to neces-
sitate dusting. This dusting for boll weevil has accounted for
an average increase of 40 pounds of seed cotton per acre on the
check plots and 203 pounds on the fertilized plots. The increas-
es in yield for the different fertilizer applications on the dusted
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
section were 587, 454, 186, and 83 pounds of seed cotton per acre
for the first, second, third, and fourth increment of 500 pounds,
respectively.
The Effect of C0
2 
Content of the Soil Suspension on the pH
Value. (J. A. Naftel).-It was found that the pH value of soils
which have been limed is greatly influenced by the CO
2 
content
of the soil. In order to avoid large errors in determining the re-
action of such soils, it became necessary to equilibrate the sus-
pensions with the CO
2 
of the atmosphere constant before de-
termining the pH value. As would be expected the differences
in the values before and after equilibration are much greater for
soils above pH 7.0 than for those below. It is suggested that a
consideration of this might help to explain the "liming factor"
encountered in certain lime requirement methods.
Studies on the Mechanism of Phosphate Retention by Soils.
(G. D. Scarseth).-A natural alumino-silicate colloidal clay
(Bentonite) was freed from all mobile ions by electrodialysis
and made into sixteen series of 3 per cent suspensions with 8 in-
dividual treatments in each series. The concentrations of phos-
phate, sodium, calcium, and hydroxyl ions were varied system-
atically. At equilibrium, tests were made for the amount of
phosphate ions retained by the colloids, the pH values, and con-
ductivity of the different systems both before carbonation and
after carbonation when at equilibrium with the CO
2 
of the air.
The alumino-silicate colloid was found to sorb the phosphate
ions. Maximum retention occurred at about pH 5.2 to 6.1 when
Ca ions were the exchangeable cations present and at about pH
6.1 when Na ions were present. 
The anion sorption capacity
in the presence of the Na ions was found to be approximately
1/3 of the cation sorption capacity. The Ca ions greatly in-
creased the phosphate sorption capacity of the colloidal complex
in the acid range. At the point where the cation valences were
saturated with Ca ions (pH 8.2) the concentration of phosphate
ions in solution decreased as the concentration of the unsorbed
Ca ions increased, showing the formation of insoluble calcium
phosphates. All the phosphate was insoluble when the system
contained free CaCO
3
. No insoluble phosphates were formed at
the high pH values when Na ions were the cations used.
The phosphate retained at the pH values of 5.5 to 6.1 is be-
lieved to be retained on the colloidal surfaces of the alumino-
silicate by the aluminum valence. The phosphate ion was found
to be exchangeable and was replaced by OH and SiO
4 
anions.
The retention of the phosphate ion by the colloid was greatly
increased when the alumino-silicate was enriched with iron.
With Ca on the clay complex and after the systems had been
carbonated, the minimum retention occurred between pH 4.0 and
(m i t Iwr( I t It c~ () ill (. ( I i til I ith I )I I i )i ts 111 t:I ti wll i t I I i I I g12
M 1 t i iit iiX 11 ( h 1 Ill 1LIXt lit if) 1 w~l c hi I ith It I ieilsd ll im
Ijititu I' e h(-it I h-i it lit ii iiis t i l t 8 es e r h )liIl eX I i i i I i > I I hi Is i ()I
(sit ni . Til XX i S il tilt hI ilIIl il- il I( t itIn> ii t hi t h XX 1hi( In m ( I t ! in lIii,
rlT he Reptlacemen6Y t of Unava(-Yille ative Phos-phaites tn Soilse
TSte Ii t I 1 t 1 t11 ilju1 1~,1 1 1 11 r;tti t
11~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~i z X -,III tI It I n l 1 , t I ).- tII1 2 c tII ( i
Fol IY-FitIll AItill(ll 1,'( poo, t
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
verified by pot tests in the greenhouse using four soils planted
to sorghum. The most outstanding phosphate replacement re-
sulted on a very acid, heavy clay soil with a SiO
2
/R
2
0
3 
ratio of
2.7 where sodium silicate produced a growth without a phos-
phate fertilizer almost equal to that on the phosphate-fertilized
soil as shown in Figure 1 and Table 1.
TABLE 1.-Yield of Sorghum and Available Phosphorus as Influenced by
Phosphate and Sodium Silicate.
Available
Yield dry phosphorus
Pot Treatment 
weight (Truog)
(gms.) 
(lbs.)
3 No phosphorus 11.6 Trace
5 Phosphorus (NaHPO
4
) 63.9 24.3
Eq. 1 ton superphosphate per A.
35 No phosphorus 42.7 5.7
2 tons sodium silicate
41 No phosphorus. NaHC03 16.2 Trace
Na eq. to Na in Pot No. 35
Reduction of Nitrate to Nitrite by the Green Plants. (A. L.
Sommer). This work was started in an effort to determine the
role of phosphorus in the catalytic reduction of nitrate to nitrite
by the expressed juice from green plants as described in the lit-
erature. The expressed juice of the tops and roots of tomato
plants were used in most cases. Wheat, cotton, and buckwheat
were also used. Where sufficient precautions were taken to pre-
vent the growth of microorganisms, very little and often no re-
duction was obtained. Where there was reduction, evidence
indicated stoichimetrical rather than enzymic or other catalytic
action.
No evidence of reduction of nitrate to nitrite for solutions
with or without the presence of algae in the dark could be ob-
tained by the Allison apparatus. On exposure to light the pres-
ence of nitrite was detected. The amount of nitrite increased
rapidly with an increase in the time of exposure and the inten-
sity of the light. At very low light intensities greater amounts
of nitrite were found in solutions plus algae than in solutions
from which the algae had been filtered before exposure to light.
Where phosphate was not added to the solution and the light in-
tensity was not sufficiently low, more nitrite was sometimes
found in the filtered than in the unfiltered solutions. The ad-
dition of phosphate to the solution greatly increased the rate of
formation of the nitrite in the presence of the algae but produced
no change when the algae were absent.
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
An Experiment on Some of the Factors Affecting Lint Devel-
opment in Cotton. (D. G. Sturkie).-In 1933, a study was begun
to determine the effect that fertilizers and organic matter might
have on the development of seed and lint in cotton. 
The fertil-
izer and moisture treatments used are shown in Table 2.
The results obtained in 1933 may be briefly summarized 
as
follows:
(1) When the soil was kept moist, the fertilizer 
used had no
effect on the length of the lint but a nitrogenous fertilizer appre-
ciably increased the weight per boll and decreased the ginning
percentage.
(2) When the soil was permitted to become 
dry the cotton
that was highly fertilized with a nitrogenous 
fertilizer produced
cotton with a smaller boll, shorter lint, and a higher ginning per-
centage than cotton that was not fertilized or that received only
phosphate and potash.
The results may be explained by the fact that 
cotton receiv-
ing nitrogen made a much larger vegetative growth 
than the
cotton that had not received nitrogen. The large plants 
used the
available soil moisture much faster than the small ones and 
thus
caused a stress for water to be set up earlier 
in the large plants
than in the small ones. Thus, a heavy application 
of a fertilizer
containing nitrogen may result in producing cotton in a dry year
that has a shorter lint and smaller boll than unfertilized 
cotton.
In a wet year there would be a marked increase in 
the size of
the boll from the fertilizer application but little or no effect 
on
the length of the lint.
These results, which are for one year only, show that 
soil
moisture is of more importance than the fertilizer used in affect-
ing the length of lint or the percentage of lint.
TABLE 2.-The Moisture and Fertilizer Treatments.
Moisture
Plot 
Fertilizer treatment 
conditionsol
PlotPounds 
per acre 
afteroil
July 13
1 Manure, 25,000; superphosphate, 500 Dry*
2 Superphosphate, 1,000; nitrate of soda, 750; muriate, 250 Dry*
3 Superphosphate, 1,000; muriate, 250 Dry*
4 Same as Plot 1 Moist
5 Same as Plot 2 Moist
6 Same as Plot 3 Moist
7 Nitrate of soda, 750; muriate, 
250 Dry*
8 Superphosphate, 1,000; nitrate of soda, 750 Dry*
9 None 
Dry*
10 Same as Plot 7 Moist**
11 Same as Plot 8 Moist**
12 Same as Plot 9 Moist*
*Rain was kept off of these plots after July 13 by means of canvas covers.
**These plots were watered in addition to the rain as often as necessary to keep the soil
moist throughout the growing season.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station
A Study of the Time of Planting of Carpet, Dallis, and Ber-
muda Grasses. (D. G. Sturkie).-This 
study was begun in Oc-
tober 1931. One planting 
of each of the grasses was 
made
about the 15th of each month. 
The best results have been ob-
tained by planting in January or 
February. The results indicate
that if moisture is sufficient 
any of these grasses may be 
planted
in any month of the year except 
August and September. Plant-
ings in the spring and summer 
months are sometimes failures
because of dry weather killing 
the young plants. Early fall
plantings in some years result 
in the plants being killed 
by early
hard freezes.
The seed of Bermuda grass from 
which hulls (glumes) have
been removed germinate much 
quicker than those with the hulls
on and appear to be preferable 
for planting.
A Study of the Uniformity 
of Soil Types. (Franklin L.
Davis).-In a laboratory and greenhouse 
study of the uniformity
of soil types and of the fundamental 
differences between the
different soil series of Alabama, 
experimental work during 
the
last year has been done on the 
following soils: 9 Cecil sandy
loams, 2 Cecil loamy sands, 3 Cecil 
sandy clay loams, 3 Cecil clay
loams, 4 Cecil clays, and 1 Davidson 
clay. Laboratory studies
have included the following 
determinations and analyses: 
Com-
plete mechanical analysis of 
the surface soil and subsoil, colloidal
clay content of the surface 
soil and subsoil, separation and 
chem-
ical analysis of the colloidal fraction 
of the surface soil and sub-
soil, total base exchange capacity 
and exchangeable calcium and
magnesium of the surface soil 
and subsoil, organic matter con-
tent of the surface soil, total P
2
01 of the surface soil and subsoil,
the hydrogen-ion concentration, 
the lime required to bring the
reaction to pH 6.50 and the readily 
available P0
4 
by Truog's
method and by a modification 
of this method of all surface 
soils
and those subsoils on which 
greenhouse studies were made.
Greenhouse studies have included 
seven fertilizer treatments in
duplicate pot cultures of all surface 
soils and of three of the sub-
soils. Three successive crops, 
one of Austrian winter peas 
and
two of sorghum, have been 
grown in the pot cultures of 
all soils
in the greenhouse. The greenhouse 
work was so designed that,
by comparison of the yield 
in response to each of the 
different
fertilizer treatments to the 
yield in response to the complete
fertilizer (N P K) treatment 
on each of the soils, the crop 
re-
sponse to the following fertilizer 
treatments could be de-
termined: (1) potash, (2) 
phosphate, (3) lime, (4) residual
phosphate without lime, (5) 
residual phosphate with lime 
and
(6) phosphate and potash.
The variation of the yields in 
response to the complete fer-
tilizer (N P K) treatment shows 
the soils of the different soil
types to be quite variable within 
the type in regard to soil pro-
ductiveness. The comparative 
yields of each of the soils 
for
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
the various fertilizer treatments showed that the variation of
the soils within the soil type in response to the different fertiliz-
ing elements was greater than the variation between the soil
types. Continued cropping showed that there was a general dif-
ference between the different soil types in their reserve supply
of phosphorus and potassium, and that there was a general dif-
ference between the different soil types in crop response to the
residual effect of applications of phosphate. The need for lim-
ing varied from soil to soil regardless of soil type. This lack of
uniformity of the soil type in response to the various fertilizing
elements and liming is attributable to the difference in the cul-
tural, fertilizer, and cropping practices which the soils had pre-
viously received.
As determined in the laboratory, the physical and chemical
properties of the soils of a given type were generally quite vari-
able. In fact, the variation in properties of the different soil
types of the Cecil series is so great that only those properties that
are definitely associated with or determined by soil texture
varied significantly from one soil type to another.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
The Effect of Vitamin B
1 
Insufficiency Upon the Nervous Tis-
sues of Young Dogs. (C. O. Prickett).-A litter of six young
dogs were rid of parasites, fed an adequate diet, and observed
until they were three months old. At that time, four animals
were placed on a diet
2 
containing an insufficient supply of vita-
min B but adequate in all other respects. The remaining two
dogs were continued on an adequate diet.
Marked variation was observed in the food intake and the
time necessary for animals on the deficient diet to develop spas-
tic symptoms. One animal showed a mild degree of spasticity
early in the experiment, cured up spontaneously, and was finally
discarded after 154 days on experiment, at which time there had
been no recurrence of the spastic symptoms. The three remain-
ing dogs developed a severe spasticity and were allowed to con-
tinue on experiment until moribund. In the later stages the
animals appeared blind, but differentiation between blindness
and vertigo was difficult. The history of the two control animals
was normal at all times.
At necropsy the three deficient animals showed a variable
degree of enteritis, which affected particularly the ileum, and a
generalized congestion of the meninges, brain, and spinal cord.
In two animals subcapsular hemorrhages were seen in the liver,
and particularly marked congestion was observed in the mid-
brain, pons, and medulla. In one animal the occipital poles of
1
Vitamin B refers to the heat labile fraction as designated by the Committee on Nomen-
clature of the American Society of Biological Chemists (1929).2
This diet contained 23 per cent fat and 8 per cent autoclaved yeast.
19
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
the cerebral hemorrhages were darkened, granular, and ap-
peared caseous.
In one control animal old adhesions were seen about the
appendix, but otherwise no deviation from the normal was seen.
Sudan III preparations of peripheral nerves of both control
and deficient animals showed no evidence of degenerative
changes; Marchi preparations of the nerves from both groups
evidenced a heterogeneous precipitation of blackened material
which made it impossible to satisfactorily demonstrate whether
degenerative changes were present or not.
Nissl preparations of the brains and spinal cords of animals
in the deficient group have not as yet been studied in detail, but
numerous areas were seen in the cerebrum in which marked de-
struction of the cortico cyto-architecture was caused apparently
by an ischemic type of change. These changes were usually
bilaterally symmetrical, were more numerous in the temporal
and occipital regions, and appeared in all three dogs. In one
animal a massive area of hemorrhage and decortication was
found in the occipital poles of both hemispheres, but was more
marked on the right side.
In the mid-brain, pons, and medulla the type of lesion dif-
fered from that observed in the cerebrum. Areas of glial and
vascular poliferation were seen which involved the corpora
quadrigemina in all three deficient animals. In two animals
the same type of change was seen to involve the area of the ves-
tibular and cochlear nuclei, the vermis of the cerebellum, and
the substantia gelatinosa. In the vermis of the cerebellum there
was also a partial destruction of the granular layers and Pur-
kinje cells which gave a moth-eaten appearance to the struc-
ture.
No deviation from the normal was seen in the brains and
spinal cords of control animals.
More detailed microscopic study, and substantiation with
other animals will doubtless lead to a better interpretation of
the changes thus far observed.
Studies of the Vitamin B Complex. I. The Effect of Fats
and of Individual Esters Upon the Vitamin B Requirement of
Rats. (W. D. Salmon and J. G. Goodman).-In order to de-
termine why different fats vary in their efficacy in decreasing
the requirements for vitamin B a series of single fatty acid
esters was prepared and fed to rats this year. When the diet
contained glyceryl or ethyl esters equivalent to 23 per cent of
fatty acid, the acids ranked in the order of decreasing effective-
ness as follows: caprylic, caproic, heptylic, lauric, myristic,
nonylic, undecylic, and oleic. Valeric, propionic and acetic had
very low efficiencies; palmitic and stearic had no demonstrable
sparing effect, probably due in part to their high melting points
20
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
and poor absorption. Butyric glyceride was toxic to rats even
when the diet contained adequate vitamin B.
It was found possible to cure spastic cases of vitamin B-de-
ficiency by the administration of esters of caprylic, caproic, hep-
tylic or lauric acids without the administration of vitamin B.
In these studies it was found that baker's yeast autoclaved
8 hours at 17 to 20 pounds pressure still contained traces of
vitamin B. Hence, when this material is used as a source of vita-
min G in vitamin B determinations it is necessary to control the
amount fed to each rat. The inclusion of the autoclaved yeast
as a certain percentage of basal diets which are fed ad libitum
is poor technique.
The onset of vitamin B-deficiency disease is not hastened by
the substitution of 23 per cent of lactic acid as the glyceride for
sucrose in the diet.
Preliminary studies with the Allison apparatus have shown
reduced amounts of the short-chain fatty acids in the brains and
livers of vitamin B-deficient rats. However, these tissues con-
tain the short-chain fatty acids in sufficient amounts to indicate
that the symptoms of vitamin B-deficiency can not be explained
by a lack of these substances as structural constituents of the
nervous tissues.
II The Quantity of Glycogen in the Vitamin B-Deficient Rat
and Its Ability to Deplete this Glycogen During Starvation. (G.
A. Schrader). It has been reported that the vitamin B-deficient
animal may have extraordinarily large deposits of glycogen in
its body when symptoms of beriberi appear and that this gly-
cogen may be depleted with difficulty during subsequent star-
vation, voluntary or forced. This is the reason for reporting the
composite data (Table 3) obtained during the course of the past
four years' work. In all cases of starvation the animals were
without access to food for approximately 24 hours, although it
has been estimated that only during about the last 15 hours was
the alimentary tract, stomach, and small intestines free from
food.
The data in Table 3 show no large accumulation of glycogen
in the vitamin B-deficient rats (Diets 3 G and 552) as compared
with the rats receiving adequate vitamin B (Diet 552 plus vitamin
B and stock diet). In fact the rats from the stock colony show
the largest glycogen storage with those on vitamin B-deficient
diet plus vitamin B next, and those on the vitamin B-deficient
diet the least.
Likewise all the rats, independent of diet or supplement, are
able to deplete their glycogen stores to about the same degree
per unit weight, except those on Diet 3 G which are consider-
ably lower. No reason is known for the low values found for
starved rats on this diet. It should be pointed out, however,
that even though the starved controls on Diet 552 gave an aver-
21
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
age glycogen value close to that obtained for the normal rats and
those on Diet 552 plus vitamin B, yet there was a considerable
variation in individual cases. This variability in case of de-
pletion of stored glycogen during starvation may be accentuated
in other species of animals and thus explain the difference in
results obtained elsewhere.
III The Ability of the Vitamin B-Deficient Rat to Utilize
d-Lactic Acid. (G. A. Schrader).-It was shown previously that
the vitamin B-deficient rat can both burn glucose and convert it
into body and liver glycogen. However, the work last year in-
dicated a poorer utilization of d-lactic acid 
for both of these pur-
poses and further work was undertaken on this substance.
As with glucose, the rats actually showing the muscular in-
coordination characteristic of extreme vitamin B-deficiency
(beriberi), Group I, have been compared with rats on the same
diet, but not showing symptoms, Group II, and also with rats on
the same diet with adequate vitamin B, Group III. The food
intake of the three groups was kept uniform. Inasmuch as very
little difference was found between Groups I and II they have
been averaged together. Starvation controls within each group
were necessarily made so as to afford a definite basis of com-
parison.
Although the individual data, glycogen formation and heat
production from d-lactic acid, were somewhat variable and a
much poorer utilization of lactic acid occurred than for d-glucose
there did not seem to be any significant indication of a break-
down in the lactic acid metabolism of the vitamin B-deficient
rat. One reason for this conclusion is a rather poor utilization
of d-lactic acid by the animals receiving vitamin B. Another
reason is based on the results obtained by feeding r-lactic acid
to rats on the same vitamin B-deficient diet as used above. These
rats ate from 0.3 to 0.5 g. of lactic acid daily but did not develop
beriberi any sooner than rats on this diet alone; in fact a slightly
longer time was required for beriberi to develop in the rats re-
ceiving lactic acid. If lactic acid metabolism fails in vitamin B-
deficiency, allowing this acid or its intermediary products to ac-
cumulate in the animal, beriberi should develop within a shorter
experimental period. Inasmuch as this did not occur it is diffi-
cult to see how failure in lactic acid metabolism can be present
in rats on a vitamin B-deficient diet and can be the specific cause
of the symptoms of acute vitamin B-deficiency.
IV The Apparent Ability of the Vitamin B-Deficient Rat to
Transform Carbohydrate into Fat. (G. A. Schrader).-Respir-
ation experiments have been carried out on carefully controlled
groups of rats with the purpose of determining the ability of the
rat on a vitamin B-deficient diet to convert carbohydrate into fat.
Two diets uere used; in one the sole source of energy, other
22
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
than from protein, was from cocoanut fat; in the other the sole
source of energy, other than protein and the fat contained 
in
the added oils (0.20 Ml. linseed and 0.10 Ml. cod liver oil per rat
daily), was from sucrose. The rats were arranged in 5 groups
as follows: Group I-High carbohydrate, Group II-High carbohy-
drate plus vitamin B, Group III-High fat, Group IV-High fat
plus vitamin B, and Group V-High carbohydrate plus vitamin B
(diet available ad libitum). The energy intake of Groups II,
III, and IV was governed by and was kept equal to that of Group
I. Respiratory quotients were determined on these 5 groups of
rats at weekly intervals for 5 weeks. Food was always given
to the rats about 21/2 hours before making the determinations.
In every case respiratory quotients of over 1.00 (average
1.26) were found for all rats on the high carbohydrate diet,
irrespective of whether they received no vitamin B or vitamin B
with either a limited or an unlimited energy intake. On the
other hand at no time was a respiratory quotient of 1.00 secured
from the rats on the high fat diet; in fact after the first week the R.
Q.s from these rats approximated 0.80, indicating that the energy
was mainly secured from fat.
It is logical to conclude from these data that the rats on the
high carbohydrate diet can convert carbohydrate into fat. How-
ever, there is a bare possibility that incomplete oxidation of car-
bohydrate can account for the R. Q.s over 1.00. This possibility
appears remote because of the similar R. Q.s obtained from the
rats on the high carbohydrate diet but which received adequate
vitamin B (Groups II and V).
TABLE 3.-The Quantity of Glycogen in the Vitamin B-Deficient Rat and
Its Ability to Deplete this Glycogen During Starvation.
NumberGlycogen Difference
Diet Numberat Treatment 
per 50 g. rat Dfe
(mgs.) (mgs.)
3 G* 13 Starved 78.6
17 Not starved 223.9 145.3
552"* 47 Starved 112.4
21 Not starved 195.1 82.7
552 plus 9 Starved 110.4
vitamin B 13 Not starved 225.1 114.7
Stock 26 Starved 113.5
3 Not starved 324.8 211.3
*Diet 3 G contained 77 per cent of sucrose.
**Diet 552 contained 43.4 per cent of sucrose and 23 per cent of fat.
The Supplemental Value of Peanuts to the Laying Ration.
(D. F. King and G. J. Cottier).-The object of this project was
to study the supplementary value of whole peanuts, ground pea-
nuts (with and without shells), and peanut meal in farm flock
rations for laying hens. Four hundred S. C. White Leghorn
pullets, divided into 10 lots, were used.
23
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Small egg size, poor body weight, and low egg production
were obtained when peanuts were fed as the sole protein supple-
ment. Peanut meal gave higher egg production than any other
peanut products when fed as the only protein supplement. The
efficiency of the peanut products was materially improved where
skim milk was substituted in proportion to supply 50 per cent
of the protein supplement. The highest rate of egg production,
best body weight, and greatest egg size were obtained where
skim milk was used as the sole protein supplement. Rations
that were high in fat gave low egg production. A positive cor-
relation existed between rate of egg production, egg size, and
body weight of birds. Hens fed peanuts deposited a very soft
fat in their bodies in comparison with hens fed skim milk. Eggs
produced by peanut-fed hens also contained a very soft fat when
compared to eggs produced on a normal ration.
BOTANY AND PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Diseases of Winter Peas and Vetches. (J. L. Seal).-During
the past season the most prevalent disease on winter peas and
vetches was that caused by Mycosphaerella sp.; however, some
damage was caused by Ascochyta sp. In the summer and fall
of 1933, the pycnidio-spores formed on old pea plants of the
spring crop were frequently checked as to their germination.
These spores retained a high percentage of viability until late
November when this work was discontinued. At this time, in-
fection of young pea plants was readily obtained from the spores
living upon the old plants by placing the old plants over the
young plants growing in the fields. Little spread and very little
damage could be attributed to these organisms until the freezes
of February and March, after which the organisms could be
found abundant on practically every plant in the planting.
From tests made on the seed of various seed lots from dif-
ferent sources, no seed lot was found that was entirely free of
these organisms. The western seed generally show less infec-
tion than local seed; however, local seed which have been held
in storage for 15 months carry no more organisms than the west-
ern seed. In general, the vetches seem to be more resistant to
these organisms than the peas. Hungarian and some strains of
Oregon vetch seem to be highly resistant and very promising as
cover crops.
Studies of Wild Onion Control with Creosote-Kerosene Spray.
(E. V. Smith).-In the fall of 1932 and again in the fall of
1933, wild onions were dug at weekly intervals throughout their
growing season to determine the rate of germination and the
time and rate of secondary bulb and aerial bulblet formation.
Germination began in the early fall and progressed so rapidly
that less than one per cent of the bulbs from an average digging
24
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
was dormant in January. The formation of new bulbs within
the old bulbs was first noted in late December, 1932, and aerial
bulblets were matured in May and June.
Plots on an onion-infested Bermuda grass lawn were sprayed
with a 10-90 mixture of creosote-kerosene at rates varying from
218 to 653 gallons per acre. Applications were made in late
December 1932 and January 1933, a period when fewest bulbs
were dormant. Fall examinations showed that the onions were
markedly reduced on these plots as compared with the untreated
plots.
Studies of Nut Grass. (G. L. Fick, E. V. Smith, and R. Y.
Bailey).-Results are available on two series of plots, 5 x 5 ft.
square, on land heavily infested with nut grass. Some plots
have been clipped with a hoe at intervals of 1, 2, 4, and 7 days,
and others have remained unclipped. The plots of one series
were clipped through two growing seasons (1932 and 1933),
those of the other through one growing season (1933). As
clipping progressed the number and vigor of sprouts appearing
between clipping gradually decreased on all treated plots. On
May 25, 1934, the sprouts on all clipped plots of both series were
counted. Clipping had markedly reduced the stand of sprouts,
all treatments reducing the average number of sprouts to less
than 10 per plot, as compared with an average of 3,026 and
3,920 sprouts, respectively, for the control plots of the 2-year
and 1-year series. Other sprout counts will be made during the
1934 season. Present indications are that clipping regularly at
short intervals for one or two years greatly reduces the stand and
vigor of nut grass but does not eradicate it.
An experiment to determine the longevity of nut grass tubers
was begun on May 18, 1933. At monthly intervals since that
date two marked tubers, each growing in Norfolk sandy loam in
a 2-gallon pot in the greenhouse, have been removed and used
in sprouting tests. After twelve months some of the tubers
were still alive and were capable of giving rise to a new system.
During the growing season of 1933 an area heavily infested
with nut grass was plowed as often as sprouts appeared. Twelve
plowings were made; the interval between plowings varied from
7 to 22 days. Sprout counts were made early in the 1934 grow-
ing season on 10 areas, of 1/1012 acre each, in the plowed sec-
tion and on 10 areas in the adjacent unplowed section. The
average number of sprouts per 1/1012 acre in the plowed sec-
tion was 2 as compared to 71 in the unplowed section. The re-
sults of this preliminary experiment suggested the value of a
more elaborate and accurately controlled experiment, includ-
ing plowing and discing treatments at various regular intervals;
such an experiment was begun on June 9, 1934.
Sixty-eight concrete bins, each inclosing an area of 1/640
acre, were built during the summer of 1933. The bins were
25
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
filled with carefullyselected subsoil 
and an 8-inch surface layer
of Norfolk sandy loam. At several 
intervals after filling, the
apparent specific gravity of the subsoil 
in the bins was determ-
ined and used as a measure of 
compaction. Since it had been
observed that nut grass tubers usually 
do not occur in the undis-
turbed subsoil underlying Norfolk 
sandy loam in the field, the
subsoil in the bins was allowed 
to reach a compactness closely
approaching that found in the 
field. The plots were then
plowed, fertilized, and planted 
to nut grass. By July 1, 1934,
there was a vigorous young growth 
of nut grass on all plots. As
soon as the nut grass becomes 
firmly established chemical con-
trol tests will be initiated.
ENTOMOLOGY
The Control of Citrus Insects 
with Oil Emulsions. (L. L.
English.)-Oil emulsions have 
shown a marked residual effect in
controlling the red spider on satsumas 
in experiments extending
over a period of 3 years. Oil 
sprays applied in July and Sep-
tember were highly effective in 
preventing an infestation of
spider during the winter months. 
In laboratory experiments
the tank-mix oil spray was more 
effective than several propri-
etary emulsions against purple scale 
and white fly. Five poly-
hydroxol alcohols, 
when applied as 
sprays, were ineffective
against white fly larvae.
Orchard Heaters. (L. L. English).-Following 
a successful
demonstration of orchard heating 
in one of the commercial sat-
suma orange groves in Mobile County, 
an investigation was made
of orchard heaters and heater fuels for this 
section. A distinc-
tion between the Alabama and 
California freeze problems was
recognized and the work here 
was developed on the basis of
radiated heat, rather than 
convected air currents which 
are ef-
fective in California.
A simple quantitative method 
for measuring the relative ra-
diation from heaters was developed 
and a number of heaters and
fuels were tested by this method. 
Of the fuels examined pe-
troleum coke is the most promising. 
At present fuel prices, the
cost of operation of an oil heater 
is about three times that of 
a
petroleum coke heater which 
gives off the same amount of radi-
ant heat. By-product or coal 
coke was a cheap and practical
fuel but the radiation developed 
with this fuel was much lower
than that from petroleum coke. 
Certain improvements were
made in heaters for burning 
petroleum coke.
Physiology of Insects with Reference 
to Their Control. (H.
S. Swingle).-The speed of decomposition 
of the arsenical in-
secticides was found to be dependent 
upon both the hydrogen ion
26
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
concentration of the solution and upon the anions present. It
was found that phosphates were present in the digestive juices
of leaf-feeding insects, being especially abundant in those having
an alkaline reaction. The speed of decomposition of the more
important arsenical insecticides was therefore determined in
phosphate buffer solutions. The phosphate ion has little effect
upon the speed of decomposition at acidities from pH 2.0 to pH
5.0; while at pH 6.0 to pH 10.0 this ion increases both the speed
and extent of decomposition of the common arsenical insecti-
cides.
The Vegetable Weevil (Listroderes obliquus). (J. M. Robin-
son).-Four female weevils laid 3,182 eggs from January 10 to
May 26, 1934. The maximum number laid by one adult was
1,989 eggs and the minimum number was 13 eggs; the average
number laid was 795.5 eggs per female.
An average of approximately 18 days was required for the
hatching of the eggs, 18 days for growth of the larvae, and 11
days for the pupal period.
Pecan Weevil (Curculio caryae). (H. S. Swingle).-From
insectary records it was found that approximately 50 per cent of
the pecan weevil larvae die during their first year in the soil; 18
per cent emerge as adults after two years; 27 per cent die during
the next year; and 5 per cent emerge as adults after three years.
Part of the pecan weevils require two years and part three years.
to complete their life cycle.
Applications of disease organisms to the soil were not ef-
fective for the control of the pecan weevil larvae.
Jarring again proved to be an effective control for the pecan
weevil adults, as was shown by records of the reduction in the
number of weevils present on the trees, by records of the injury
to immature nuts, and by records of the number of wormy nuts
at harvest.
At harvest it was found that an average of 87 per cent of the
nuts were free of worms on trees which had been jarred, while
only 67 per cent of the nuts on unjarred trees were free of worms.
Life History and Control of the Cowpea Curculio (Chalca-
dermis aeneus). (F. S. Arant).-Cowpeas were dusted in the
field to determine the effectiveness of certain insecticides in con-
trolling the cowpea curculio. Eight applications of the follow-
ing dusts were made: sodium fluosilicate containing 25 per cent
colloidal silica, calcium arsenate, Pyrethrum dust, and Florate,
which is a new commercial product containing 5 per cent rote-
none, 1 per cent pyrethrins, 1 per cent nicotine, 2.5 per cent res-
idual deposit of rotenone, and 90.3 per cent inert material.
Only 5.5 per cent of the peas were punctured on the plot
dusted with calcium arsenate, whereas 31 per cent were punc-
27
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
tured on the corresponding undusted plot. Nine per cent of
the peas were punctured on the plot dusted with sodium fluos-
ilicate and 29 per cent on the corresponding undusted plot. The
percentage of punctured peas on the plots dusted with Pyren-
thrum and Florate was only slightly lower than on the corre-
sponding undusted plots.
Calcium arsenate produced moderate burning of foilage; the
other dusts produced no burning.
HORTICULTURE AND FORESTRY
Black Locust as a Plant for Soil Erosion Control and Fence
Posts. (L. M. Ware).-Quite contrary to the general belief and
to the information contained in literature, the growth of the
black locust has been very disappointing when transplants have
been placed on eroded lands, on poor land, or under situations
where plants have received little care. Slash and loblolly pines
under situations where the locust has failed have made very
satisfactory growth and have almost completely checked erosion.
The locust, however, planted for fence posts on prepared land,
given two cultivations, and supplied about one-half pound of a
complete fertilizer has made an average diameter growth of
1.04 inches and a height growth of 8.12 feet within 13 months
from seed. Locust planted 3 years earlier on a similar site but
given no care had made a total height growth in 3 years of 2.69
feet and a total diameter growth of .39 inches. In one experi-
ment locust plants grown in beds and transplanted to the field
had made 3.38 feet height growth within 13 months from seed
where the soil was prepared; two cultivations in addition to
preparation increased the height 47 per cent; the further ad-
dition of nitrogen, although the plants were well nodulated,
gave a still further increase in height of 23 per cent; and the
further addition of potash gave a still further increase in height
of 17 per cent.
Range of the Slash Pine in Alabama. (L. M. Ware).-The
slash pine is well adapted to the southern fourth of Alabama
and is found growing naturally in this area. Because of its rap-
id and early growth, its early and heavy gum production, its
excellent timber characteristics, and because of its adaptability
to artificial planting, it was desirable to determine the extent
to which its northern limits might be extended. Plantings have
been made in Central Alabama, North Central, and North Ala-
bama on Norfolk, Cecil, and Decatur soils respectively. At each
place and on each soil the slash pine is growing very satisfactor-
ily. The oldest planting, 60 miles north of its natural range, is
8 years old from transplants. The average annual height growth
has been 2.28 feet for the slash pine as compared to 1.83 feet for
the loblolly pine, 1.15 feet for the shortleaf pine, and .72 feet
Forty-Fifth Annual Report
for the longleaf pine. In North Alabama the planting is five
years old from transplants. The average height growth per
year of the slash has been 2.24 feet as compared to 2.71 feet
for the loblolly.
Beet Variety Test. (C. L. Isbell).-For two years a study
has been made to determine the yield, uniformity, and quality of
different varieties of beets. Varieties represented by Fireball,
Good for All, and Ohio Canner made low yields and produced a
low percentage of beets off-color. The beets of these varieties
are comparatively small and rather uniform in shape and size.
In preparing the roots of these varieties for table use, the skin
is difficult to remove unless the beets have been well cooked.
Many of the varieties producing comparatively large yields, such
as Extra Early Eclipse, Improved Early Blood and some others,
are not very uniform in color, shape or size. It is not necessary
to cook these varieties as much for the purpose of removing the
skin preparatory for table use as it is the varieties that grow
more slowly and produce lower yields.
Neither yield, intensity of color, nor uniformity of color ap-
peared to have any direct correlation with the amount of soluble
solids present.
The choice of the variety or varieties of beets to grow should
be largely determined by whether the grower wants a deeply
colored uniform product at the expense of low yields or large
yields at the expense of a less uniform product. If high yields
are desired and if a variety of medium uniformity and fair qual-
ity is acceptable, the Detroit Dark Red appears to be the most
promising variety.
Nematode Injury to the Roots of Table Varieties of Cowpeas,.
(C. L. Isbell).-While observing the root system of various table
varieties of cowpeas to determine the general extent of their
development, an apparent difference was detected in the ex-
tent to which the roots were damaged by nematodes. To de-
termine if the apparent difference actually existed several table
varieties and a few field varieties were grown during 1932 and
1933 in garden soil heavily infested with nematodes. Repre-
sentative plants were taken up at intervals, beginning with
young plants and continuing until the plants were mature. The
roots were carefully examined, without the use of magnification.
It is shown in Table 4 that varieties differed greatly in degree of
infestation. All the varieties of crowders were damaged. Many
of the plants of some of the crowder varieties died before fruit-
ing. The group of white peas with black eyes ranged in degree
of injury from a medium amount on the Virginia Black Eye to
what amounted to almost no injury on the California Black Eye.
The Lady or Rice pea was found to be very susceptible to nema-
tode injury. The Counch or Gentleman pea was extremely re-
Alabama Agricultural Experiment 
Station
sistant, even more so than the Victor which 
has been reported
by the United States Department 
of Agriculture to be one of 
the
most highly resistant varieties.
TABLE 4.-Relative Nematode Injury 
to Roots of Table Varieties of Cow-
peas Grown in Infested Sandy Soil 
at Auburn, Alabama, 1932-1933.
Summary of Results for 1932 and 1933
Variety
Black Crowder
Brown Crowder
Calif. Black Eye
Counch
Cream Crowder
Cream Crowder (large
seeded)
Dixie Queen
Extra Early Black Eye
Lady
Lady Crowder
Leopard (bch.) field peas
Leopard (vining purple
hull) field pea
Purple Hull (white)
Six Weeks (field pea)
Speckle Crowder
Taylor (field pea)
Va. Black Eye
Brown Eye
Victor (field pea)
White Crowder
Woods Sumptuous
No.
plants
ex-
amined
49
82
159
304
119
57
152
110
140
30
110
50
92
247
182
110
182
30
157
135
167
Per
cent
in-
fested
51.31
24.08
4.01
0.33
84.50
56.14
63.41
22.43
90.62
60.00
100.00
96.00
29.71
9.19
74.79
86.83
58.24
50.00
46.07
83.33
72.87
Degree of infestation
Medium
Medium
Free to very light
Considered free
Medium to very heavy, many
plants killed
Medium to heavy
Light to medium
Free to light
Very heavy, many
Medium to heavy
Very heavy, many
Very heavy, many
plants killed
plants killed
plants killed
Free to very light
Free except area
Very light to medium
Medium to heavy
Very light to medium
Light to medium
Free to heavy
Medium to heavy
Light to heavy
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Dissimilar Nodulation Following the 
Planting of Unhulled
and Shelled Seed of Winter Legumes. (J. 
F. Duggar).-On in-
oculated plants grown on soils lacking 
the appropriate nitrogen-
fixing micro-organisms, bur clover and 
hubam plants from un-
hulled seed developed larger numbers 
of nodules than where
shelled seed were planted. In most 
experiments inoculated
crimson clover, subterranean clover, and 
black medic also tended
to earlier and more intensive nodulation 
where unhulled rather
than shelled seed were planted. This 
initial advantage in no-
dule numbers from planting unhulled seed 
is attributed to the
conveyance by them of larger amounts of inoculum. 
The differ-
ences in nodulation tended to disappear as 
the plants aged.
I r\/ I I I ,rnv
I .I~~IXIC?~ W 1PY
30