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S FORTY-THIRD ANNUAL REPORTo
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Contents
Trustees---------------------------------------------------- 3
Station Staff ------------------------------------------------------------ 3
New Publications------------------------------------------------------- 5
Agricultural Economics ---------------------------------------------- 6
Agricultural Engineering--------------------------------------------- 7
Agronomy and Soils-------------------------------------------------- 10
Animal Husbandry --------------------------------------------------- 19
Botany------------------------------------------------ ---------- ------- 22
Entomology ------------------------------------------------------------ 22
Home Economics ------------------------------------------------------ 24
Horticulture------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Special Investigations---------------I---------------------------------- 28
ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
TRUSTEES
His Excellency, B. M. Miller, President
A. F. Harman, Superintendent of Education
W. H. Oates (First District)
Charles Henderson (Second District)
H. H. Conner (Third District)
T. D. Samford (Third District) ......................
H. D. Merrill (Fourth District) ........
Harry Herzfeld (Fifth District)
J. A. Rogers (Sixth District)
C. S. Culver (Seventh District)
C. W . Ashcraft (Eighth District) ....................
Victor H. Hanson (Ninth District)
P. S. Haley (Tenth District)
B. L. Shi, Secretary
Ex Officio
Ex Officio
Mobile
Troy
Eufaula
------- Opelika
...... Anniston
Alexander City
-----Gainesville
Gadsden
------Florence
Birmingham
Oakman
EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF
Bradford Knapp, B. S., L. L. B., D. Agr., President
M. J. Funchess, M. S., Director of Experiment Station
W. H. Weidenbach, B. S., Executive Secretary
P. 0. Davis, B. S., Agricultural Editor
Mary E. Martin, Librarian
Sara Willeford, Agricultural Librarian
Agricultural Economics:
*J. D. Pope, M . S. .................
B. F. FAlvord, M. S.
C. G. Garman, M. S.
E. H. Mereness, Ph. D-.
C. M. Clark, M. S. 
Dee R. Eoff, B. S.
Edith M . Slights ................
Agricultural Engineering:
M. L. Nichols, M. S..
J. W. Randolph, M. S..
H. C. Mauer, B. S.
A. Carnes, M. S-.
N. W. Wilson, B. S-.
E. G. Diseker, B. S.
H. D. Sexton, B. S..
Agronomy and Soils:
M. J. Funchess, M. S-.
J. W . Tidmore, Ph. D.............
Anna L. Sommer, Ph. D..........
**F. L.-Davis, M . A. ...............
G. D. Scarseth, B. S..............
J. A. N aftel, M . S.................
H. B. Tisdale, M. S-.. . . .
J. T. Williamson, B. S-.
R. Y . Bailey, B. S. ................
D. G. Sturkie, Ph. D...............
G. H . Jester, B. S. ...............
F. E. Bertram, B. S...............
E. L. M ayton, B. S. ...............
J. W . Richardson, B. S............
J. R. Taylor, B. S. ...............
Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Poultry:
J. C. Grimes, M. S.
W . D. Salmon, M. A..............
G. A. Schrader, Ph. D............
------------------------------A gricultural Econom ist
Associate Agricultural Economist
....Associate Agricultural Economist
------------------Associate Agricultural Economist
............... .Assistant in Agricultural Economics
........... _. _ _ Assistant in Agricultural Economics
.Statistical Assistant
............................... A gricultural Engineer
-Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U. S. D. A.)
Junior Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U. S. D. A.)
. . Assistant Agricultural Engineer
. Assistant Agricultural Engineer
-Assistant in Agricultural Engineering
-----------.--------------------- .G raduate A ssistant
.. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .A g ro n o m ist
.. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .S o il C h em ist
............................. A ssociate Soil Chem ist
.............................. A ssistant Soil Chem ist
............................. A ssistant Soil Chem ist
............................. A ssistant Soil Chem ist
-.---------------------------A ssociate Plant Breeder
----.---------------------.------A ssociate A gronom ist
............................... A ssistant A gronom ist
-----------.--------------------A ssistant A gronom ist
............................. A ssistant in A gronom y
-----------------------------A ssistant in A gronom y
-.---------------------------A ssistant in A gronom y
------------------------------A ssistant in A gronom y
------------..--------------------- -A ssistant in A gronom y
Head Animal Husbandry, Dairying, and Poultry
........... Research Professor Animal Nutrition
_-Associate Research Professor Animal Nutrition
* On leave.
**Assigned by the State Department of Agriculture and Industry.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
C. O. Prickett, B. S.
G. A. Trollope, B. S.
D. F. King, M. S..
W. E. Sewell, M. A.
G. J. Cottier, M. A.
C. T. Bailey, B. S.
J. G. Goodman, B. S.
Botany and Plant Pathology:
J. L. Seal, Ph. D-.
*G. L. Fick, M. S.
E. V. Smith, M. S.
Entomology:
J. M. Robinson, M. A.
L. L. English, Ph. D.
H. S. Swingle, M. S.
F. S. Arant, M. S.
Home Economics:
Edna R. Bishop, M. A.
Horticulture and Forestry:
L. M. Ware, M. S..
C. L. Isbell, Ph. D.
O. C. Medlock, M. S.
R. W. Taylor, M. S.
P. L. Wright, B. S..
E. E. McElwee, B. S.
Special Investigations:
J. F. Duggar, M. S.
Agricultural Substations:
Fred Stewart, B. S.
C. F. King ..........
R. C. Christopher, B. S.
J. M. Henderson, B. S.
J. P. Wilson, B. S......
K. G. Baker, B. S.
C. L. McIntyre, B. S....
Otto Brown, M. S.
H. F. Yates, B. S.
Associate Research Professor Animal Nutrition
---------------------------- ..- P oultry H usban dm an
------------------Assistant Poultry Husbandman
....-- ... Assistant Animal Husbandman
Assistant in Animal Husbandry
Superintendent Poultry Farm
Graduate Assistant
.. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .B o t a n is t
Assistant Botanist
Assistant in Botany and Pathology
..... .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .E n to m o lo g ist
Associate Entomologist (Spring Hill, Ala.)
............................. A ssociate Entom ologist
Assistant Entomologist
Associate Home Economist
.. .... . .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. ... H orticu ltu rist
-- ---- --- -- -- --- -- --- -- ----- -- -- --- -- -H o rticu ltu rist
........................... A ssistant H orticulturist
Assistant Horticulturist
................................. G raduate A ssistant
Graduate Assistant
Research Professor of Special Investigations
Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation,
Belle Mina, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Tennessee Valley Substation,
Belle Mina, Ala.
Superintendent Sand Mountain Substation,
Crossville, Ala.
-Assistant to Superintendent, Sand Mountain Substation,
Crossville, Ala.
....................... Superintendent W iregrass Substation,
Headland, Ala.
Superintendent Black Belt Substation,
Marion Junction, Ala.
------Assistant to Superintendent Black Belt Substation,
Marion Junction, Ala.
Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation,
Fairhope, Ala.
Assistant to Superintendent Gulf Coast Substation,
Fairhope, Ala.
CHANGES IN STATION STAFF DURING 1931-32:
Appointments:
E. H. Mereness, Ph. D.
J. A. Naftel, M. S.
J. G. Goodman, B. S.
E. V. Smith, M. S.
Dee R. Eoff, B. S.
H. C. Mauer, B. S.
E. E. McElwee, B. S....
Resignations:
P. A. Taylor, B. S.....
W. A. Gardner, Ph. D.
W. C. Kelley, B. S.....
* On leave.
.............. -Associate Agricultural Economist
Assistant Soil Chemist
Graduate Assistant in Animal Husbandry
Assistant in Botany and Pathology
Assistant in Agricultural Economics
Junior Agricultural Engineer (Coop. U. S. D. A.)
Graduate Assistant in Horticulture and Forestry
............ Assistant in Agricultural Economics
.. .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .... .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . B o t a n is t
-----------------------------Assistant in Entom ology
Forty-Third Annual Report
NEW PUBLICATIONS
Bailey, R. Y., and Seal, J. L.-Small Grain Crops in Alabama.
Alabama Experiment Station Circular 60. Results are given on
planting, fertilization, varieties, harvesting, uses, and diseases
of oats, wheat, and rye. Oats planted in the fall made approxi-
mately twice as much as those planted in the spring. Red Rust-
proof and Fulghum varieties made the largest yields of oats in
variety tests. Of six varieties of wheat included in variety tests,
the Alabama Bluestem variety made the largest average yield.
Baver, L. D., and Scarseth, G. D.-Subtropical Weathering
in Alabama as Evidenced in the Susquehanna Fine Sandy Loam
Profile. Soil Research, 1931, 2:288-307. A study of the physical
and chemical properties and composition of the soil and colloidal
material of a Susquehanna fine sandy loam profile shows that
the lateritic type of weathering has been predominant in its
development. Analytical data on the composition of colloids
from other soils collected from various localities in the state are
also given. On the basis of this study the northern limit of lat-
eritic weathering in Alabama is placed at the 61
0
F. mean annual
temperature isotherm. Most of the soils in the state are under
the influence of lateritic weathering.
Diseker, E. G.-Inexpensive Machinery for Filling the
Trench Silo. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station Circular
61. A small feed cutter having sufficient capacity for filling a
trench silo and requiring only a small amount of power was
tested during the fall season of 1931. This is a comparatively
small machine without a blower. If a tractor is not available,
a small gas engine is sufficient for its operation. This machine
operated with a 4-horse-power gas engine will cut silage at the
rate of 40 tons per ten hours.
Pope, J. D., and Clark, Carl M.-The Relation of Quality of
Cotton to Prices Paid to Farmers in Alabama. Alabama Experi-
ment Station Bulletin 235. A study of the official classification
and prices paid to farmers for approximately 15,000 bales of
cotton sampled in Alabama during the marketing seasons 1926-
27, 1927-28, and 1928-29 indicated that there was a tendency
for cotton buyers to pay farmers more for the better grades than
for the poorer grades. On the other hand, very little distinction
was made between 13/16-inch, %
7
-inch, and 15/16-inch staple
lengths in the purchase of individual bales of cotton from far-
mers.
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
A Study of Farm Organization on the Heavy Clay Soils of the
Black Belt of Alabama. (C. M. Clark).-The average labor in-
come of all farm operators interviewed in three selected areas
in Montgomery, Greene, and Perry Counties was $55, $81, and
$204, respectively. Most of these farms, as is typical of most of
the Black Belt, received a major portion of their income from
cotton.
Fifty-four per cent of all land owners in the three areas
rented out their farms, operating no land themselves. The av-
erage returns on investment by these owners were 2.1 per cent in
Montgomery, 3.1 per cent in Greene, and 4.9 per cent in Perry.
In Perry and Greene those owner non-operators made higher re-
turns on investment who had a higher percentage of the farm in
crops, and a larger proportion of crop land in cotton. Owner
non-operators in Montgomery who had a larger proportion of
the farm in crops, but a smaller percentage of the crop land in
cotton, made the higher percentage returns on investment. The
average returns on investment of owner non-operator farms were
as follows: Eutaw clay 4.9 per cent, Houston clay 4.0 per cent,
and Sumter clay 2.1 per cent. Land owners whose tenants
made the higher average labor incomes received the larger re-
turns on investment.
In Montgomery those cotton farm operators who had the
higher acreages in cotton made the smaller labor incomes. On
the other hand, in Perry and Greene, those cotton farm operators
who had the largest acreages of cotton received the largest la-
bor incomes. In the two latter areas cotton farmers who had
more than the average number of acres of cotton and less than
the average number of head of productive livestock received
larger incomes for labor than those who were below average in
those factors. In Montgomery, more productive livestock and
less acres in cotton than the average were associated with higher
than average labor incomes. In all areas increases in labor in-
come were found to be closely associated with increases in yield
of lint cotton per acre.
An Economic Study of Changes in Farm Organization and
Practices made by Cotton Farmers in Marshall and DeKalb
Counties in Response to a Changing Price Level. (Ben F. Al-
vord) .- Data as to certain changes in farm prices, in farm or-
ganization, in farm practices, in yields, and in labor incomes
are available on from 84 to 106 farms for each of the comparison
periods, 1927 to 1928, 1928 to 1929, 1929 to 1930, and 1930 to
1931. The most noticeable changes in farm organization and
practices following price changes were in crop acreages, and in
rates of fertilizer application to cotton and corn.
Forty-Third Annual Report
In each successive year following a decline in the price of
cotton increasing numbers of farmers reported reductions in cot-
ton acreage and increases in corn acreage. Responses to price
changes were not similar on all farms. Even in 1931, when
farmers generally reduced their cotton acreage in response to
sharply depressed prices, 25.5 per cent of the group increased
their cotton acreage by 2 or more acres, 12.3 per cent increased
it by 6 or more acres, and 8.5 per cent increased it by 10 or
more acres. These increases, though small, are relatively im-
portant since the average number of acres of cotton per farm
in 1931 was only 19.6. Increases in corn acreage occurred simul-
taneously with decreases in cotton acreage, but were hardly as
numerous or as large. Decreases in both pounds of fertilizer
applied and in expenditure for fertilizer per acre on both cotton
and corn usually occurred following a decline in the price of
cotton; a few instances were noted each year of farmers who in-
creased the amounts of fertilizer applied. In 1931, however,
only 2 per cent of the farmers, as compared with 80 per cent in
1928, increased their expenditure for fertilizer by $1 or more
per acre over that of the preceding year.
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Experiments with Machinery for Planting and Harvesting
Oats. (E. G. Diseker).-Land was prepared and oats were
planted by the use of the following combinations 
of equipment:
(1) A 12-inch moldboard horse-drawn plow, and a Farmall
tractor with a 6-foot tandem disc and grain drill, (2) a4 end-
gate seeder, 12-inch horse-drawn plow and a Farmall tractor with
a 6-foot tandem disc, (3) a 6-foot tandem disc, a 6-foot grain
drill and a Farmall tractor. Combinations (1) and (2) were
used on prairie soil; combination (3) was used on sandy soil.
The fuel and labor costs per acre for preparation and planting
were as follows: combination (1) $1.97, combination (2) $1.93,
and combination (3) $0.26. The yields of oats on prairie soil
planted by combinations (1) and (2) were found to be the same.
Continued experiments show that the windrow harvester,
when used with the pick-up attachment on the combine, was
better adapted to harvesting oats under Alabama conditions
than was the combine alone. This method allowed the oats and
weeds to become uniformly dry, thus eleminating troubles with
wet grain. On steep land it was found to be advisable to have
an adjustable hillside combine for harvesting oats. In a test on
land having a 15 per cent grade, leveling the machine increased
the amount threshed from 20 bushels to 33 bushels per acre.
Weed Control Studies. (E. G. Diseker).-Tests with the ro-
tary hoe from 1929 to 1931, inclusive, showed this to be a profit-
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
able implement for the cultivation of young cotton, corn, and soy-
beans when the soil was in proper condition for its use. The la-
bor required for cultivation was greatly reduced by the use of
this implement. In several instances the rotary hoe aided in get-
ting a stand of cotton on crusted soil.
Continued experiments with a one-horse spring-tooth weeder
showed it to be a satisfactory implement for the cultivation of
young corn, cotton, and peanuts that were infested with com-
mon weeds and crab grass, when the vegetation did not exceed
2 inches in height. It did not destroy Bermuda, Johnson, and
nut grass.
To successfully plow up nut grass with a cultivator, it was
necessary to use sweeps over three inches wide and have them
overlapping several inches, to prevent them from sliding around
the grass. Sweeps were found to be more effective than shovels
or spring teeth. A riding cultivator was found to be more effi-
cient for nut grass than a walking cultivator, because it was
more easily controlled and a more uniform depth of penetration
was obtatined.
Continued experiments with corn and cotton showed the
check-row method to be practical on sandy and Black Belt soils
having moderate grades (up to 10 per cent). A thorough and
uniform seed bed should be prepared before attempting to check
corn and cotton with the present two-row planters. Fifty per
cent of the chopping and hoeing was eliminated by checking.
The yields of check and drilled planted cotton were similar.
Methods of Curing Hay. (E. G. Diseker).-During the period
of 1928 to 1932, inclusive, legumes were cured in swath and
windrows. Cowpeas and soybeans cured in the windrow pro-
duced a better quality of hay than when cured in the swath, be-
cause a greater amount of leaves and green color was retained
in the hay. Results showed it was not necessary to turn the
windrows more than twice, unless rains occurred while curing.
Cowpea hay was safely baled into light bales when it contained
10 per cent moisture.
Continued tests with the Louisville hay drier and the Vos-
hamp drier showed that green alfalfa and Johnson grass, con-
taining 70 to 78 per cent moisture, could be reduced to 8 to 20
per cent moisture in the dried hay, at a fuel and labor cost of
$2.88 to $5.00 per ton of dried material.
Hillside Planting and Cultivating Equipment. (E. G. Dise-
ker).---A two-row flexible planter was built and used for plant-
ing cotton on land having as much as a 40 per cent slope and
numerous terraces. A uniform stand of cotton was obtained
over irregular beds and terraces.
Small cotton on land having a grade of 25 per cent was culti-
vated with a one-row riding cultivator with standard wheels.
Forty-Third Annual Report
Cotton 6 to 8 inches high was cultivated on a 38 per cent grade
when 11/
4
,"xll/
4
" angle iron rims were used on standard wheels.
The walking cultivator was found to be more difficult to
handle on the steep grades than the riding pivot-axle cultivator.
Soil Erosion Studies. (M. L. Nichols and Hugh Sexton).-A
comparison of the soil from the experimental plots with the
original soil revealed the fact that the losses during the two years
tions, i. e., the fractions having the greater effect on productivity.
of the experiment were mainly in the colloid, clay, and silt frac-
The greatest loss was in the silt fraction, which varied from 7
per cent on the plots having 10 per cent grade to 9 per cent on
the plots having 20 per cent grade. The loss in colloid varied
from 1 per cent on the 10 per cent grade to 4 per cent on the 20
per cent grade.
Mechanical analyses were also made of the material washed
from the plots by different amounts and rates of rainfall, when
the soil was in different physical conditions. The analyses
showed that in all cases the losses were in the finer separates.
The losses onthe 0 and 5 per cent grades were practically all col-
loid, clay, and silt. When the soil was compacted a one-inch
rain washed 439 pounds colloid, 171 pounds of silt, and 26
pounds of clay per acre from the 5 per cent grade plots. These
losses increased on plots having greater grades. On the 20 per
cent grade these losses were 2,224 pounds of colloid, 8,240 pounds
of silt, and 277 pounds of clay per acre. After the soil was
plowed 5 inches deep the losses from a similar rain were very
much greater. On the 5 per cent grade the losses were: 853
pounds of colloid, 333 pounds of silt, and 52 pounds of clay per
acre. On the 20 per cent grade these losses were: 5,929 pounds
of colloid, 1,731 pounds of silt, and 409 pounds of clay per acre.
The rate of rainfall is one of the most important factors af-
fecting the amount of erosion. An inch of rain was applied to all
plots. In 81/2 minutes the loss of the soil on the level plots alone
was 623 pounds per acre. When the same amount of rain was
applied in 1612 minutes the loss on the level plot was 336 pounds
per acre. This difference, however, was much greater on the
steeper slopes. In both cases the moisture content and other
soil conditions were aproximately the same.
The degree of saturation at the beginning of precipitation
materially affects erosion. For example, one and one-half inches
of rain were applied in 25 minutes to the plots having 5 per cent
slope when the surface soil contained 10.78 per cent of moisture.
The soil eroded per acre was 72 pounds. On the same plot when
the soil was saturated, the loss for a similar rain was 3,555
pounds per acre.
Plowing land materially increases erosion when the land be-
comes saturated. Surface cultivation materially increases ero-
sion when the rate of rainfall is high and decreases it when the
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
rate is low. All data to date show that contour rows reduce
erosion very materially.
It was reported last year that a heavy growth of vetch prac-
tically eliminated erosion on slopes up to 10 per cent during one
inch of rain applied in 812 minutes. The same experiment was
repeated this year using Austrian peas as the protective crop.
Comparative data for all grades were not obtained due to the
fact.that a large number of the peas, on the level and 5 per cent
grade plots, were killed by water standing between the cotton
beds ,during the cold weather. Where good stands were ob-
tained both crops were very effective in preventing erosion. The
amount of protection depended upon the slope, the amount of
green material present, and the growth habits of the plant. The
data indicate that pound for pound (green weight) hairy vetch
will decrease erosion more than will Austrian peas.
AGRONOMY AND SOILS
Methods of Land Preparation for Cotton. (R. Y. Bailey).-
Different methods of preparing land for cotton were studied on
Norfolk sandy loam during the seven-year period, 1925-1931, in-
clusive. The methods of preparation used and the yields of cot-
ton obtained are presented in Table 1.
During the seven-year period three plots which were broken
deeply made an average of 1,028 pounds of seed cotton per acre
annually, three plots which were broken shallowly made an av-
erage annual yield of 924 pounds, and seven unbroken plots
made an average of 895 pounds.
Soybean Variety Tests. (H. B. Tisdale).-Table 2 gives the
results of soybean variety tests conducted at Auburn over the
period 1926-1931, inclusive. The results show that the Chiquita
is a promising new variety for Central Alabama. It produced
the highest average yield of seed and a relatively high average
yield of hay per acre.
Permanent Pasture Studies on Upland Soils (E. L. Mayton)
These studies conducted over the period 1925-1932, in which
different fertilizer treatments were applied to different mixtures
of pasture plants may be summarized as follows:
(1) Hop clover in the early spring and the three grasses
(Dallis, Bermuda, and carpet) and lespedeza in the summer are
the only plants which have shown promise under the conditions
of this experiment.
(2) Dallis grass has withstood summer: drouths better than
any other plants used.
(3) Hop clover and lespedeza have shown a marked re-
sponse to phosphorus; the grasses have shown a marked response
to nitrogen.
Forty-Third Annual Report
TABLE 1.-Average Yield of Cotton in an Experiment Comparing Different
Methods of Land Preparation, 1925-1931
Method of preparation
Check-land not broken
Plot
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 Check
Fertilizer applied
In a shallow
ded on
In a shallow
ded on
furrow and bed-
furrow and bed-
In a deep furrow and bedded
on
With seed on a bed made by
laying off rows with a mid-
dle buster
Check
In a shallow furrow and bed-
ded on
In a deep furrow and bedded
on
With seed on a bed made by
laying off rows with a mid-
dle buster
Check
In a shallow furrow and bed-
ded on
In a deep furrow and bedded
on
With seed on a bed made by
throwing two furrows to the
old row with a turn plow
Check
Seven-year av-
erage yields of
seed cotton in
pounds per
acre
914
1,031
1,032
1,020
828
888
934
951
890
892
919
951
931
(4) Theyields from limed plots have been generally larger
than- yields from unlimed plots. Since a better balanced sod of
the desirable pasture plants was obtained by liming, this indi-
cates a more sufficient utilization of the fertilizer materials ap-
pIied.
(5) Fertilizer treatments have proved of questionable value
under the conditions of this experiment where the moisture sup-
ply is limited. All fertilizer treatments, however, have increased
the percentage of desirable pasture plants.
Broken deeply
Broken deeply
Broken deeply
Check
Broken shallowly
Broken shallowly
Broken shallowly
Check
Not broken
Not broken
Not broken
11
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
TABLE 2.-Average Yields of Hay and Seed and Relative Earliness of
Soybeans in Variety Tests at Auburn, 1926-1931
Variety Yields per acre 
Number days from
planting to hay
Hay Seed 
cutting
Lbs. Bus.,
Otootan 2,587 5.2 
125
Biloxi 2,514 6.2 
128
Chiquita 2,480 10.5 
109
Tarheel Black 2,401 9.7 
114
Mammoth Yellow 2,334 7.9 
110
Laredo 1,977 8.0 
112
Arlington 1,822 
8.5 98
Southern Prolific 1,696 7.9 
105
Dixie 1,524 
10.1 89
Virginia 1,431 
7.1 87
(6) A thicker and better balanced sod with 
fewer weeds
throughout the growing season has been obtained 
on plots
which received a complete fertilizer plus lime.
The Time of Cutting Sudan and Johnson 
Grass for Hay. (D.
G. Sturkie).-The results of this study, which 
was started in
1929, show that the value of the hay 
has been about equal when
cut at the three following stages: booting, 
blooming, and late
milk. The largest yield was produced by cutting 
in the late milk
stage. Earlier cutting reduced the yield of Johnson 
grass ap-
proximately one-third and that of Sudan one-half. 
In the case
of Johnson grass it was evident that the stage at 
which cut and
the frequency of cutting should be such as to permit a 
large root
reserve to be formed for the maximum yields of hay.
Fertilizer Studies with Italian Rye Grass. (D. G. Sturkie).
The results of fertilizer studies with a thick sod of Italian Rye
grass on a fertile Norfolk sandy loam soil may be summarized
as follows:
(1) Nitrogen was the only element added which markedly
benefited the grass. Applications of phosphorus, potassium, or
calcium produced no visible effect.
(2) Mineral nitrogen, from a mixture of equal parts of ni-
trate of soda and sulfate of ammonia, produced as satisfactory a
sod as did organic nitrogen from cottonseed meal.
(3) Applications of mineral nitrogen made several times
during the winter produced a better sod than the same amount
of nitrogen applied in one application at planting time. This
was true for all rates of application used in this study. The
treatments used were 500, 1,000, and 2,000 pounds of material
per 
acre.
Forty-Third Annual Report
(4) Top-dressing the sod at a rate of 500 pounds or more
per acre with a mineral source of nitrogen resulted in severe
burning of the grass.
Plant Introduction Studies. (D. G. Sturkie) .- A test was
started in 1929 to determine the adaptability of certain plants
which might be useful for forage, lawn, or soil-improving pur-
poses in this section. The following is a list of plants that have
been tested but did not appear to be valuable or that could not
withstand the climatic conditions at Auburn.
Grasses
Andropogon bifoveloatus No. 04147
Andropogon caricosus No. 04720
Andropogon intermedium No. 04143
Andropogon ischaenum F.P.I. 76028
Andropogon pertusus S.P.I. 49510
Andropogon purpureosericeus S.P.I.
No. 49509
Andropogon scaberrimus No. 03490
Andropogon trichopus S.P.I. 51334
Andropogon annulatus
Arundinella anomala S.P.I. 57276
Avena plonoculmis S.P.I. 59364
Avena ludoviciana S.P.I. 64094
Axonopus compressus No. 03087
Axonopus compressus No. 05556
Axonopus compressus F.C. No. 13581
Axonopus compressus F.C. No. 13582
Axonopus compressus S.P.I. 67803
Axonopus purpuresis No. 03489
Brachiaria brizantha F.P.I. 77474
Brachiaria distachya F.P.I. 75960
Chaetochloa geniculata S.P.I. 67545
Chloris beyrichiana F.P.I. 75775
Chloris ciliata F.P.I. 74514
Chloris petraea S.P.I. 47105
Chloris polydactyla F.P.I. 74548
Chloris sp. No. 05045
Cynodon dactylon F.P.I. 76420
Cynodon dactylon (St. Lucia-var. St.
Lucia)
Cymbopogon sp. S.P.I. 60474
Cymbopogon afronardus F.P.I. 75313
Digitaria abyssinica S.P.I. 51432
Digitaria didactyla
Danthonia pilosa F.P.O. 76012
Digitaria sp. F.P.I. 75314
Eragrostis fascicularia S.P.I. 54404
Ehrharta calycina F.P.I. 75200
Eleusine floccifolia F.P.I. 75319
Eremochloa ophiuroides F.P.I. 70786
Harpachne schimperi F.P.I. 75329
Heleochloa schoenoides S.P.I. 61429
Hyparrhenia hirta S.P.I. 58756
Hyparrhenia hirta S.P.I. 66008
Hyparrhenia sp. F.P.I. 76426
Ixophorus unisetur F.P.I. 71388
Leptochloa obtusiflora F.P.I. No.
75907
Melica cupani S.P.I. 64953
Melica gmelini S.P.I. 64775
Opizia stolonifera F.P.I. 77026
Opizia stolonifera F.P.I. 77027
Panicum bergi No. 62045
Panicum flavidum No. 05466
Panicum maximum No. 04337
Panicum sp. S.P.I. 51158
Panicum sp. S.P.I. 52179
Paspalum conjugatim F.P.I. 76432
Paspalum dilatatum F.C. 13585
Paspalum dilatatum
Paspalum scrobiculatim F.P.I. 76434
Paspalum sp. S.P.I. 76436
Pennisetum ciliare S.P.I. 48178
Pennisetum complanatim S.P.I. 49763
Pennisetum latifolium S.P.I. 49003
Pennisetum setosum F.P.I. 76437
Pennisetum unisetum S.P.I. 60569
Pennisetum sp. F.P.I. 75921
Pentzia incana S.P.I. 67880
Saccharum officinarum S.P.I. 29109
Sporobolus sp. S.P.I. 58779
Spodiopogon sp. S.P.I. 59638
Sporobolus sp. S.P.I. 67609
Sporobolus sp. S.P.I. 60456
Sporobolus sp. F.P.I. 75379
Star grass
Triodia brasiliensis S.P.I. 62059
Tripsacum latifolium No. 03097
Tripsacum laxum No. 04530
Trichloris pluriflora F.P.I. 75779
Tricholaena rosea F.P.I. 7644
Miscellaneous Forage Crops
Alysicarpus rugosa 33444
Arachis nambyquaceae 62099
Bradburya plumeri
Bradburya plumeri 68019
Bradburya pubescens 77979
Calopogonium mucunoides
(Continued on next page.)
13
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Miscellaneous Forage Crops (continued)
Crotalaria sp. 70939 Crotalaria usuramoensis 45617
Crotalaria sp. 60305 Dolichos hosei
Crotalaria sp. 65331 Guar
Crotalaria sp. 73005 Hastings Poultry Pea
Crotalaria sp. 60306 Indigofera suffruticosa 46248
Crotalaria sp. 61646 Meibomia sp. 73016
Crotalaria sp. 60472 Meibomia gyroides
Crotalaria sp. 04277 Red Bean No. 1
Crotalaria sp. 60304 Red Bean No. 72912
Crotalaria emarginate Shuteria vestita
Crotalaria juncea 57223 Teramus labialis
Crotalaria polyspema 51836 Pyrethrum
Phosphate Studies in Solution Cultures. (Anna L. Som-
mer).-The minimum concentration of the phosphate ion neces-
sary for maximum growth differs for different kinds of plants.
A study of root systems of wheat, buckwheat, peas, corn, toma-
toes, and cotton indicated that, with the exception of tomatoes,
this minimum concentration was inversely related to the amount
of surface exposed to the solution for absorption. The number
of root hairs is apparently the most important consideration.
Wheat and buckwheat, which showed a tremendous number of
root hairs, made good growth where the phosphate ion concen-
tration was maintained at 0.1 p.p.m., while cotton and corn on
which no root hairs were observed made a very poor growth.
The roots of tomato plants grown in this series had sufficient
root hairs to lead one to expect them to make fair growth at low
phosphate concentrations. This very poor top-growth may
be attributed to physiological peculiarities of the tomato
since it belongs to the group of plants whose leaves and stems
become purple when phosphorus in the nutrient medium is de-
ficient. Some of the tomato plants which were shaded during
the latter part of the experiment lost the purplish color and be-
gan to make more rapid growth.
Cotton, which has a very limited root surface, could not
maintain normal growth when phosphorus was removed from
the nutrient medium even though it had been present in large
excess for the first 64 days of growth. Growth practically
stopped soon after the plants were removed to phosphorus-free
solutions.
The Occurrence of an Oxidizing Agent in Solutions in Which
the Ammonium Ion was used as the Source of Nitrogen. (Anna
L. Sommer).-In a study comparing ammonium and nitrate ions
as the source of nitrogen in the presence of deficient and ade-
quate phosphate supplies, a rapid fading of the blue color of
the reduced molybdenum compound was observed when colori-
metric determinations for phosphate were made on solutions
containing the ammonium ion. The substance causing the fad-
ing did not appear until after the plants had been growing in the
solution. Evaporation of the solution to about 1/20 of the orig-
14
Forty-Third Annual Report
inal volume caused it to become yellow. Further study showed
that the yellow compound and the oxidizing agent were not the
same. The yellow compound was readily and the oxidizing
agent only slightly soluble in alcohol. Evaporation of the solu-
tion to dryness and subsequent heating at a temperature only a
little above 1000 C. destroyed the oxidizing agent. The oxidiz-
ing agent was not destroyed when the solution was evaporated
to dryness at reduced pressure, nor when boiled at atmospheric
pressure in the presence of an excess of calcium carbonate. It
was destroyed when boiled in the presence of fairly concen-
trated acid.
This substance was produced in solutions by both wheat and
peas, the only plants thus far studied. It remained in the solution
in which peas were growing but disappeared after a time in
cultures of wheat.
Properties and Fertilizer Response of Certain Soil Types.
(F. L. Davis).-Greenhouse and laboratory studies of 11 Green-
ville fine sandy loams, 8 Greenville sandy loams, and 4 fine sandy
loams of types having a similar profile found in the Coastal Plain
region have been made. Similar chemical and greenhouse
studies of 4 Decatur clay loams and 18 Decatur clays found in
the Limestone Valleys are being made. A summary of the data
obtained earlier on this project by W. W. Pate on 14 Norfolk
fine sandy loams and 8 other samples of types having similar
profiles is reported herein for the purpose of comparison.
The results of the greenhouse studies showed a greater need
for phosphate than for any other element. Plant response to
phosphate fertilization was the greatest onthe Norfolk soils. A de-
cided residual effect of applications of phosphate was obtained on
all soils. This effect was the greatest on the Norfolk andsmallest
on the Decatur soils. The beneficial effect from residual phos-
phate was least on those soils which had the greatest colloidal
content. This diminishing residual effect of phosphate fertili-
zation was due to fixation of the phosphate by the colloidal frac-
tion of the soils. A greater plant response from residual phos-
phate applications was obtained on the limed than on the un-
limed cultures of all the soils. This response was greatest on
the Norfolk soils. This effect is explained as being due to the
reversion of the phosphate, in the presence of lime, to tri-calcium
phosphate, a form easily rendered soluble again, whereas, in
the absence of lime it is converted to the comparatively unavail-
able iron and aluminum phosphates.
All soils showed an increased 
plant growth from liming, 
it
being the greatest on the Decatur and smallest on the Greenville
soils. This response was inversely related to the pH values of
the soils.
Only the Norfolk soils showed a response to potash fertiliza-
tion of the first crop, and this response was slight. Both the Nor-
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
folk and the Greenville soils showed large response to potash
fertilization on the second consecutive crop. This indicates that
there is an amount of available potash in both soils sufficient to
produce but one normal crop without additional potash applica-
tions under greenhouse conditions.
A summary of the growths of plants obtained in the green-
house is given in Table 3. The results of the laboratory studies
show that the readily available phosphate content of the Norfolk
and Greenville soils increases from south to north. Within these
series the more southerly located the soil the greater is its need
for phosphate fertilization. On the average the Decatur soils
contain more total P
2
0
5 
but less available phosphate than the
Greenville soils. This difference is explained by the larger
colloidal content of the Decatur soils.
The amount of lime required to bring the soils of the Green-
ville series to a pH of 6.50 was found to be more closely related
to their organic matter content than to their content of mineral
colloids.
The SiO
2
-sesquioxide ratio of the Norfolk and Greenville soils
increases from south to north. The subsoils of the Norfolk and
Greenville soils have larger SiO
2
-sesquioxide ratios than their
respective surface soils. Both of these facts are in agreement
with the accepted theories of the effect of climate upon soil
profile development.
As compared with the Norfolk soils the Greenville soils con-
tain larger quantities of exchangeable calcium. This indicates
an influence of calcareous materials in the formation of the
Greenville soils.
The readily available phosphate content of the soils as de-
termined in the laboratory was found to be closely correlated
with the crop growth on the soils. The values of the index of
correlation expressing this relationship for the Norfolk and
Greenville soils were +0.812 and +0.785, respectively.
Plant growth of Austrian winter peas was found to be more
closely correlated to the degree of calcium saturation of the
soils than to their pH value. This indicates that within the pH
limits of these soils the need of this crop .for lime is a nutritional
rather than an acidity problem.
A summary of the data obtained by the more important lab-
oratory determinations on these soils is given in Table 3.
Fixation of Phosphates by Soil Colloids. (G. D. Scarseth).
In a study of the nature and extent of phosphate fixation an ex-
periment was conducted with four types of soil colloids which
varied in SiO
2
-sesquioxide ratios from 1.57 to 3.81. Each type
of colloid received Ca(OH)
2 
in amounts equivalent to 0, 33.3,
66.6, 100, and 200 per cent of the base saturation capacity.
Phosphates were added to each colloid system when equilibrium
between the calcium and the colloids was established. The forms
Forty-Third Annual Report
TABLE 3.-Average Yields Obtained in the Greenhouse in Grams Dry Weight
First crop
(a) Austrian winter peas
NK NPK PK NPKL PKL
5.55 8.76 6.94 9.69 9.15
4.88 6.82 5.81 8.24 7.13
Greenvilles 26.83 36.52
N NP
11.44 20.78
11.02 37.64
18.15 21.56
N
6.78
14.17
NP
13.17
40.18
(b) Sorghum
Second successive crop
(a) Sorghum
N K
N K NP K Residu
P
12.74 28.58 20.27
11.11 38.29 21.23
25.78 41.14 28.05
38.33
NPK N K
al Residual Residual
L P and L
34.11 26.42
41.02 25.80
42.67 33.98
Third successive crop
(a) Sorghum
N K NPK NK
N K N P K Residual Residual Residual
P L 
P andL
9.59 27.17 14.46 31.68 16.73
15.98 47.80 23.93 50.74 30.23
(b) Austrian winter peas
Greenvilles 2.62 3.92 3.54 5.81 4.39 6.00 4.60
of phosphates added were: ortho-phosphoric acid, mono-calcium
phosphate, di-calcium phosphate, tri-calcium phosphate, rock
phosphate, and tri-sodium phosphate. The extent and nature
of the PO
4 
fixation were determined by a modification of Truog's
method by the use of buffered N/500 and N/10 H2SO4 solutions.
The results of this study show that the availability of the
native phosphorus in the colloids varied directly with the Si0
2
-
sesquioxide ratio, i. e., the native phorphorus in soils with red
colloids was less available than that in soils with gray colloids.
The native phosphorus in any of the soil colloids studied was
more available in the colloids with an excess of calcium hydrox-
ide at equilibrium with the soil acids than in the colloids unsat-
urated with calcium.
The data show that the phosphate fixation capacity of the
colloid is inversely proportional to the Si0
2
-sesquioxide ratio.
In general, the more acid the colloid the greater was the recov-
ery of added phosphates. Supersaturating the colloid with cal-
cium decreases the percentage recovery of added phosphates.
Soils
Norfolks
Decaturs
N
5.30
4.83
NP
8.26
6.69
Soils
Norfolks
Decaturs
Greenvilles
Soils
Norfolks
Decaturs
17
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Ortho-phosphoric acid, di-calcium phosphate, and tri-sodium
phosphate were about equal in availability and more available
than the other forms of phosphates in the gray colloids, but di-
calcium and tri-sodium phosphate are less fixed than ortho-
phosphoric acid in the red colloids. Mono-calcium phosphate
was fixed to a slight degree more than the di-calcium phosphate
in all the colloids. Tri-calcium phosphate was about 10 per
cent less available than the mono-calcium phosphate in the gray
colloid and about equal to it in the red colloid. Rock phosphate
was about 20 per cent less available than mono-calcium phos-
phate in the gray colloid and slightly more available than the
mono-calcium phosphate in the red colloid.
Fixation of Phosphates by an Acid, Heavy Clay Soil. (G. D.
Scarseth).-The fixation of six different forms of phosphates
was compared at various rates and periods of application be-
fore planting sorghum in a greenhouse pot experiment on a very
acid, heavy clay soil (Vaiden clay). Calcium carbonate was
also applied at different periods with each of the phosphates at
a rate necessary to bring the reaction of the soil to pH 6.5. It
was found that on the unlimed soil di-calcium phosphate was
slightly more available than the mono-calcium phosphate. Tri-
calcium phosphate was a little more than 50 per cent as avail-
able as the mono-calcium phosphate. Superphosphate was 17
per cent and mono-ammonium phosphate was about 10 per cent
more efficient than mono-calcium phosphate. Ferric phosphate
was quite ineffective in supplying available P0
4 
to the plants.
The fixation of all the phosphates increased with time.
Nearly all the very soluble phosphate was fixed at the end of
a 365-day period. The rate of fixation was greatest for the most
soluble forms of calcium phosphate. Tri-calcium phosphate,
although less available, was more slowly fixed than di-calcium
phosphate, and di-calcium phosphate was more slowly fixed than
mono-calcium phosphate. The rate of fixation for the tri-so-
dium phosphate compared closely with that of the di-calcium
phosphate.
Except with the tri-calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate
caused a very great depression in the availability of the various
phosphates applied in low rates (300 lbs. superphosphate per
acre). This depression diminished slightly as the length of time
the lime had been in the soil increased. With the high phos-
phate rates (1800 lbs. superphosphate per acre) there was a
general depression but of less magnitude than with the low
rates and this depression decreased rapidly as the length of time
the calcium carbonate had been in the soil increased. The cal-
cium carbonate depressed the available phosphate in the tri-
calcium phosphate where the calcium carbonate was applied at
planting, but this depression decreased greatly as the length of
time between liming and phosphate addition increased.
18
Forty-Third Annual Report
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
A Protein Supplement to White Corn for Fattening Hogs in
the Dry Lot. (J. C. Grimes, W. E. Sewell, and G. J. Cottier)
Two trials, one extending from January 1 to April 9, 1931, and
the other from June 4 to September 10, 1932, have been made
to determine the value of certain protein supplements.
The first trial included four lots of ten hogs each. All lots
received a basal ration of white corn and a mineral mixture com-
posed of equal parts of charcoal, lime, and salt. The supple-
ment used in each lot was as follows:
Lot 1-60 per cent protein digester tankage.
Lot 11-40 per cent protein tankage.
Lot 111-40 per cent protein commercial mixture.
Lot IV "Alabama Trinity" composed of 2 parts of 60 per
cent tankage, I part of cottonseed meal, and 1
part of kudzu meal.
The second trial was a repetition of the first trial with a fifth
lot added. Lot V received a ration of white corn, minerals, and
a supplement made up of equal parts of tankage (60 per cent
protein) and cottonseed meal (40 per cent protein). There
were only eight hogs in each lot in the second trial. All rations
in both trials were self-fed, free choice.
The average results for the two trials are summarized in
Table 4.
TABLE 4.-Results from Different Protein Supplements
Lot number II III IV V
Average number of pigs per lot 9 9 9 9 8
Average initial wt. per pig, lbs. 48.2 48.3 48.2 48.3 47.0
Average daily gain per pig, lbs. 1.54 0.75 1.35 1.51 1.41
Average feed required per 100
lbs. gain 356.8 478.6 379.0 363.0 352.1
A Closed-System Respiration Apparatus for Young Rats and
Other Small Animals. (G. A. Schrader).-A desirable ap-
proach to the study of the relation of vitamin B to carbohydrate
metabolism involves the determination of the gaseous exchange
of the rat, as measured by the respiratory quotient, together with
the chemical procedure previously discussed. An apparatus of
the closed-system type which is suitable for short respiration
periods with small rats has been developed.
Constant oxygen content and atmospheric pressure are
maintained by means of a 50 ml. burette attached to a leveling
19
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
tube and by a sensitive capillary manometer inserted in the ani-
mal chamber. The animal chamber consists of a 1500-1700 mls.
wide-mouth bottle which can be tightly sealed. The carbon-
dioxide is determined by absorption in standard barium hydrox-
ide, contained in a small efficient absorption bottle, and the ex-
cess alkali titrated with standard hydrochloric acid.
Accurate and reproducible results are obtained with this ap-
paratus for metabolism periods of 20-30 minutes, in which there
is an oxygen consumption of 25-50 mls. and a proportionate car-
bon-dioxide production. The R. Q. of the starved normal young
rat was consistently found to be between 0.68 and 0.74.
The Relation of Vitamin B to Hemoglobin Content of Blood.
(W. D. Salmon and J. G. Goodman).-Other investigators have
reported that anhydremia is associated with a deficiency of
vitamin B. Samples of blood taken from rats and pigeons show-
ing marked symptoms of vitamin B deficiency frequently tends
to be dark and viscous. It is sometimes impossible to get satis-
factory samples of peripheral blood from such animals. Hemo-
globin determinations were made on more than 200 samples of
blood from rats on various diets with the idea that under the
conditions of these experiments hemoglobin can be used as an
index of blood concentration.
Rats showing characteristic vitamin B deficiency usually had
an abnormally high hemoglobin content; in some cases this was
as high as 25 gins. per 100 cc. However, control rats receiving
adequate vitamin B but having their food-intake limited to that
of the deficient animals likewise had an abnormally high hemo-
globin content. The results indicated that the anhydremia asso-
ciated with a lack of vitamin B was a result of the accompanying
inanition rather than of any specific effect of vitamin B.
Effect of Heating Casein on Gains of Rats. (W. D. Salmon).
-Casein heated to 1300 C. for 48 hours was used as the sole
source of protein in the diet, vitamins B and G being supplied by
a protein-free extract of yeast. Rats on this diet failed to make
any growth and eventually declined and died. When the diet
was supplemented with 0.50 gm. per rat daily of an extracted
residue of yeast a subnormal rate of growth followed.
On the same diets containing casein which had been thor-
oughly extracted with acidulated H
2
0 but not heated, rats made
gains of 25 to 35 gms. per week when the sole source of vitamins
B and G was a protein-free extract of yeast. These results are
not in accord with the conclusions of Hunt that there is an unex-
tractable factor of the vitamin B complex in yeast, which is nec-
essary for the growth of rats.
Mineral Supplements in the Dairy Ration. (W. H. Eaton)
The studies on bone meal and marble dust as mineral supple-
Forty-Third Annual Report
ments in the dairy ration have been continued. There have been
no apparent beneficial effects from the use of these mineral
supplements.
Studies Relating to the Preparation of Chocolate Ice Cream.
(A. D. Burke) .- Experimental studies on thirty-one samples of
cocoa and chocolate liquor indicated that: (1) Chocolate ice
cream was generally improved in flavor when cocoa was added
at the rate of 2.25 to 2.75 per cent instead of the generally ac-
cepted rate of approximately 3 per cent; reducing the quantity
of cocoa to 2.25 to 2.75 per cent sometimes lightened the color
of chocolate ice cream to the extent that the addition of artifi-
cial color was desirable; (2) an excellent and highly desirable
flavor was produced in ice cream when the cocoa or chocolate
syrup is so standardized in sugar content that the finished ice
cream contained 15 per cent sugar; (3) cocoa or chocolate
syrups should be homogenized prior to use in ice cream except
when they are added with the ingredients in the pasteurizer
and processed along with the mix.
Simplified Rations for Chickens During the Brooding, Grow-
ing, and Laying Periods. (G. A. Trollope, D. F. King, C. T.
Bailey) .-Eight lots of 350 chicks each were fed various rations
composed chiefly of feed products grown on Alabama farms sup-
plemented by a simple mineral mixture. The study involved the
use of the same rations continuously throughout a period of 16
months, including the brooding and growing stages and a laying
period of 11 months. The control lot received a well-balanced,
10-ingredient ration which has given satisfactory results over
a period of years. A ration of 85 pounds of yellow corn meal,
15 pounds of ground oats, and 11 pounds of mineral mixture, with
skim milk, self-fed, proved more efficient than the control ration.
A similar ration in which wheat shorts replaced ground oats was
found to be almost as efficient. White corn meal was inferior
to yellow corn meal in simplified rations under confinement con-
ditions. The replacement of skim milk with meat scrap, as a
source of protein, was unsatisfactory during the brooding period.
In general, the simplified rations gave satisfactory growth, were
more economical, and resulted in higher egg production and
greater egg weight.
Efficient Rations for Laying Hens. (G. A. Trollope and D. F.
King).-White corn meal and yellow corn meal were equally
efficient for egg production when used with a basal ration of
liquid skim milk, minerals, and green feed, under free range
management. Yellow corn meal gave higher hatchability of eggs
than white corn meal. Hens fed liquid skim milk as the chief
source of protein produced more and larger eggs than those fed
meat scrap, fish meal, or cottonseed meal as main protein
sources.
21
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Ground Soybean Hay for Laying Hens. (D. F. King and
G. A. Trollope).-The object of this study was to determine the
possibility of substituting ground soybean hay for alfalfa leaf
meal in laying rations.
Four lots, each containing 50 S. C. W. Leghorn pullets, were
tested for a period of nine months. The results obtained show
no significant difference in egg production, rate of mortality, or
in hatchability, and weight of eggs laid by birds receiving alfalfa
leaf meal and birds receiving soybean hay meal when used to
supplement rations containing either yellow or white corn meal.
BOTANY
Studies of Nut Grass. (G. L. Fick, E. V. Smith and R. Y.
Bailey).-The nut grass plant consists of a system of aerial
shoots, underground tubers, "basal bulbs," and rhizomes. Ex-
periments indicated that this system functioned as a unit, that
any part of the system might draw on the remainder for food
and water, and that the aerial shoot with the tuber or "basal
bulb" to which it was directly attached did not function as an
individual. Two years' results showed that the deeply formed
tubers were no more efficacious in sending shoots above ground
than were shallower-formed tubers when planted at the same
depth.
Experiments now in progress, in which the aerial shoots are
being clipped daily and at 2-, 4-, and 7-day intervals, show that
the reserve carbohydrates of the underground system are rapid-
ly depleted. Tubers from all treatments sprouted, however,
after two months of clipping.
ENTOMOLOGY
Control of the Turnip Webworm (Hellula undalis Fabr.).
(J. M. Robinson).-The toxicity of barium fluosilicate, sodium
fluosilicate, extra light sodium fluosilicate, calcium arsenate, lead
arsenate, and cryolite, was tested on the turnip webworm. These
tests indicated that sodium fluosilicate and calcium arsenate,
when diluted fifty per cent with hydrated lime, were sufficiently
effective to control the larva of the turnip webworm when ap-
plied at weekly intervals. The foliage of the turnips was not
affected by calcium arsenate and sodium fluosilicate when ap-
plied in the aforementioned dilutions.
Control of the Cowpea Curculio (Chalcodermus aeneus Boh.).
(F. S. Arant).-Variety tests to determine the susceptibility of
different varieties of cowpeas to the attack of the cowpea cur-
culio were conducted. The order in which the thirteen varie-
22
Forty-Third Annual Report
ties were arrayed with regard to percentage of peas punctured
by the cowpea curculio was as follows: California Black Eye,
45.8; Virginia Black Eye, 45.3; Dixie Queen Brown Eye, 41.8;
Cowpea, 36; Extra Early Black Eye, 34.2; White Crowder, 33.3;
Lady Pea, 32.5; Six Week Pea, 31.8; Cream Crowder, 31;
Speckle Crowder, 25.9; Black Crowder, 21; Taylor, 14; Conch,
12.9.
Extra light sodium fluosilicate mixed in equal proportions
with hydrated lime and applied in a series of five dustings at
weekly intervals to twelve varieties of cowpeas materially re-
duced the infestation. The percentage of punctured peas for all
dusted varieties was 10.9 as compared to 19.5 for all undusted
varieties.
The Life History and Control of the Pecan Weevil (Curculio
caryae Horn). (H. S. Swingle).-One generation of the pecan
weevil has been reared in the insectary. The life cycle required
two years for completion.
In Central Alabama adult weevils began emerging from the
soil on the last day of July. Emergence reached its peak by
August 28. The number of weevils present in groves declined
rapidly after that date and all had died before September 30.
The infestation of weevils was less than half as large as in
the previous year, as shown by jarring records. Nuts matured
later than usual and the adult weevils began to die off before
egg laying could begin. This resulted in much less damage than
usual to Schleys and a good crop was matured. Success nuts
matured so late that the weevils did no damage, whereas, in
1930, 12 per cent of the nuts at harvest were infested.
Eggs were laid during the period August 24 to September 20.
Larvae emerged from the nuts from September 9, 1931, until
March, 1932. Maximum emergence occurred between October
8 and 20.
The destruction of nuts with closely clinging husks at harvest
was found to destroy large numbers of larvae, but this practice
cannot be relied upon alone to give effective control as the ma-
jority of the larvae have left the nuts by harvest time during
most years.
Jarring, where the trees have low-hanging branches, will re-
duce the damage from the pecan weevil. This should be done
at least once a week, beginning about the first week in August
and continuing until the second week in September. The wee-
vils should be destroyed by dropping into kerosene. Lead arsen-
ate-lime dust did not reduce injury by the pecan weevil.
The Control of Citrus Insects with Oil Emulsions. (L. L. Eng-
lish) .- Life History Work.-About 60 days were required for the
completion of the life cycle of purple scale, Lepidosaphes beckil
Newm. Although hatching of eggs was more or less continuous
23
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
throughout the year, the crawlers appeared in three main
broods. The length of life cycle of long scale, L. gloverii Pack.,
was essentially the same as purple scale. The eggs of the latter
did not hatch throughout the winter and the crawlers did not
occur in broods as distinctly as those of purple scale. The life
cycle of camphor scale, Pseudaonidia duplex Ckll., averaged about
10 days longer than purple scale. Camphor scale was dormant
during the winter and the crawlers appeared in rather distinct
broods. Red spider, Tetranychus citri McGregor, is mainly a
pest of winter and early spring. The adults of white fly,
Dialeurodes citri Ash., appeared in three rather distinct maxi-
mums. There were "fly free" periods in May and July.
INSECT CONTROL. In field trials satisfactory control of purple
scale and camphor scale was obtained with two applications of
proprietary oils when the applications were timed to catch the
maximum number of crawlers. The results with camphor scale
were particularly good on account of its more distinct broods.
Bordeaux reduced the effectiveness of oil emulsions against pur-
ple scale when the two sprays were combined. The reduction
in kill of the white fly larvae was less than that of the purple
scale. The effectiveness of oils against purple scale increased
gradually with viscosity for oils ranging from 64 to 146 seconds
Saybolt. Between viscosities of 64 and 54, there seemed to be
a critical value, below which the oils were very ineffective.
Crude rubber dispersed in oils to increase their viscosity failed
to materially increase their effectiveness.
OIL RESIDUE.-Oils ranging in viscosity from 54 to 146 seconds
required from 15 to 100 days for complete disappearance from
satsuma foliage. There was no essential difference in the rate
of disappearance of white and straw oils. The amount of oil
on the foliage of satsumas any time after spraying can be ex-
pressed by the equation:
y - ae- b x ? C, where
y- the amount of oil,
x = the number of days after spraying,
and a, b, and C, are constants
depending on the concentration
of the spray, the viscosity of
the oil, etc.
HOME ECONOMICS
A Study of the Calcium and Phosphorus Content of Various
Vegetable Foods Grown in Alabama. (Edna R. Bishop).
Analyses of leafy vegetables grown either in the greenhouse or
in the field showed a wide variation of calcium and phosphorus
24
Forty-Third Annual Report
content with different soils and different fertilizer treatments.
The variation in these two elements was usually in opposite di-
rection; the calcium-phosphorus ratio varied as much as 12-fold
in the case of cabbage.
HORTICULTURE
Fertilizer Experiments with Strawberries. (R. W. Taylor).
A summary of flower and fruit production on Norfolk fine sandy
loam receiving different fertilizer applications in 1930 followed
by a uniform application of a mixture of nitrate of soda and sul-
fate of ammonia to supply nitrogen at the rate of 30 pounds per
acre in 1931 before fruiting is shown in Table 5.
TABLE 5.-Influence of Fertilizer Treatment on Production of Flowers and
Fruits of the Strawberry
Fertilizer treatment 1930 Average number 
of flowers and fruits in 1931
Pounds per acre 
Main crop 
Late crop 
Total
N P
2
0. K
2
0 Flowers**Fruits Flowers**Fruits Flowers**Fruits
0 0 0 235 211 91 76 326 287
0 256 0 271 255 80 92 351 347
80 256 0 395 306 76 87 471 393
80 256 100 357 318 122 142 479 460
* Average of 6 plots of 12 selected plants each.
** Open flowers counted at weekly intervals.
Variety Tests with Vegetables. (C. L. Isbell).
BEANS.-In a comparison of the bush snap beans, including the
Black Valentine, Red Valentine, Excelsior Refuge, Stringless
Greenpod, and Tennessee Greenpod, the latter matured earliest
and produced the highest yield when planted in the spring, but
it did not yield well when planted in summer. The Valentine
varieties were the highest yielders based on averages of all
plantings made during the growing seasons. The Ideal Market
was the earliest of the pole varieties of snap beans tested. When
all plantings were considered and averaged, it was the highest
yielder, followed by Kentucky Wonder, McCaslan, Cornfield,
and Southern Prolific in the order named. During very dry sea-
sons, as that of the summer of 1931, the Cornfield and a nema-
tode-resistant strain, selected at Auburn, greatly outyielded other
varieties.
CABBAGE.-The All-Head Early, All-Season, Louisiana Copen-
hagen, Succession, and Louisiana Wakefield grown as spring
cabbage have given in three years average head yields of 5,668,
3,030, 13,050, 5,833, and 8,984 pounds per acre, respectively. These
25
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
differences were relatively much greater than the differences in
the gross yields of the different varieties per acre. The late-
maturing varieties did not reach normal development, due to
unfavorable weather conditions. Of the varieties named, the
Copenhagen is the most promising for the production of heads
from spring set plants.
GARDEN PEAS.-A planting of garden peas made February 8,
1932, offered an unusual opportunity of comparing the relative
hardiness of different varieties during the prolonged cold period
of March 5 to 15, which reached minimum temperature of 17' F.
The percentages of the plants killed by this temperature were as
follows: Alaska 83, Ameer 73, Prosperity 72, Thomas Laxton 44,
Laxtonia 25, Little Marvel 25, Improved Telephone 4, Champion
of England 1, Dwarf Telephone 0, and Bliss Everbearing 0 per
cent.
Nitrate Levels of the Soil as Influenced by Different Ratios of
Nitrates and Organic Materials. (E. W. McElwee).-This ex-
periment was planned to study the effects of certain organic ma-
terials on the nitrate levels of the soil, with the object of apply-
ing the results to the problem of increasing cold resistance of
satsuma trees by discouraging late activity of the trees in fall
and winter, through the lowering of the nitrate content of the
soil. In the experiment pots were used supplemented by out-
side bins. This study consisted largely of determining at inter-
vals the nitrate content of the soil after the addition of different
ratios of nitrates and certain organic materials.
On the basis of a check treatment receiving no organic mate-
rials or nitrates but having a natural nitrate content of 35 p.p.m.,
the greatest nitrate depression for each material added was as
follows: for 1 ton of grass, 17 p.p.m.; for 2 tons of grass, 32
p.p.m.; for 1 ton of legumes, 10 p.p.m.; and for 2 tons of legumes,
20 p.p.m. When the nitrate content of the soil was increased to
200 p.p.m., by the application of nitrate of soda, the greatest
depression was: for 2 tons of grass, 57 p.p.m.; for 2 tons of le-
gumes, 29 p.p.m.; and for 200 pounds of sugar, 30 p.p.m. All
weights of organic material were on a dry basis.
The duration of the nitrate depression period under green-
house conditions increased as the rate of application of organic
material increased, and decreased as the nitrogen content of the
added organic material increased. The length of time the ni-
trate content remained near the lowest point was as follows:
for 1 ton of legume, 7 days; for 2 tons of legumes, 13 days; for
1 ton of grass, 14 days; for 2 tons of grass, 21 days; and for 2
tons of grass plus 200 pounds of sugar, 20 days. The rate and
amount of nitrate accumulation following the nitrate depression
increased as the nitrogen content of the material increased. The
soil in all cases receiving sugar only had not reached the nitrate
26
Forty-Third Annual Report
content of the soil of the respective check treatment at the end
of 67 days. The soil receiving grass or legumes reached the ni-
trate content of the soil of the check treatment as follows: le-
gumes, 7 to 19 days; and grass 44 to 53 days.
The nitrate accumulation, above that of the check, following
the nitrate depression by organic materials was at the end of 67
days as follows: for 1 ton of grass, 12 p.p.m.; for 2 tons of grass,
15 p.p.m.; for 1 ton of legumes, 20 p.p.m.; and for 2 tons of
legumes, 75 p.p.m.
Influence of Different Fertilizer Treatments and Seasonal
Conditions on the Characteristics, Composition and Properties of
the Strawberry Fruit. (L. M. Ware).-This year's work adds
strength to the conclusion of last year that different 
fertilizer
treatments do not so greatly alter the eating, shipping, or storage
qualities of berries as to materially affect their 
market value.
The work this year shows, as did the work of last year, that
certain materials have a marked and distinct effect on certain
specific characteristics and properties of the fruit. Of the indi-
vidual elements studied, the effect of potassium is most distinct.
Berries receiving potassium always have a significantly higher
electrical conductivity, indicating a higher content of ionizable
salts, always require much more base to neutralize a given
amount of juice, yet generally have a lower acidity-a higher
pH-than berries receiving no potash. Potassium on the con-
trary has no significant influence on the size, the sugar content,
the firmness, the soluble solids, the total solids, or the shipping
quality of berries. In fact it appears to affect very little those
qualities or characteristics which determine the market value
of a fruit.
Rainfall, as it affects soil moisture, causes differences in ber-
ries at different periods that are greater than the differences
from different treatment at any one period. As soil moisture
becomes more and more limited irrespective of fertilizer treat-
ment very definite changes occur in the general characteristics,
composition, and properties of the berries. In the field the
berries lose their bright red color and pleasing contrast between
seed and skin. They become 
smaller, the yield drops, 
and the
percentage of No. 1 berries is reduced. Laboratory studies show
a marked increase in soluble solids, sugar content, total solids,
titratible acidity and firmness, and a distinct drop in acidity, a
reduction in the-amount of moisture lost during shipment, a drop
in electrical resistance, and a drop in the shipping index number
indicating better shipping quality. Rain of sufficient amount
to affect the supply of available soil moisture causes a prompt
and distinct reversal of the above trends.
27
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
Number of Root Nodules on Spanish Peanuts as Affected by
Fertilization. (J. F. Duggar).-In the exceptionally dry sum-
mer of 1931 superphosphate, basic slag, hydrated lime, and mu-
riate of potash, each applied separately, tended to reduce the
average number of nodules per plant throughout its life, even
when the fertilizer was not in immediate contact with the non-
inoculated, unhulled seed.
When the fertilizers were separately applied in closest pos-
sible contact with the unhulled and untreated seed, the average
number of nodules per plantwas notably reduced by each chem-
ical. This reduction was greatest during the early life of the
seedlings. Such unfavorable effect of common fertilizer ingre-
dients diminished as the plant grew older; it had almost disap-
peared by harvest time, even in this dry summer, in the cases of
separate applications of basic slag and hydrated lime.
Correlation between Yield of Spanish Peanuts and Nodule
Numbers or Numbers of Main Branches. (J. F. Duggar).-Cor-
relation was found to be high (correlation coefficient + .641
?- .083) between weight of dry nuts per plant and the average
number of nodules of all sizes as found on Spanish peanut plants
49 days before harvest.
In general the yield of nuts was more nearly parallel to the
number of nodules per plant as found 38 to 49 days before har-
vest than to the number of nodules present on the day of digging
peanuts. Such correlations tended to run highest on unfertilized
and otherwise untreated plots and were affected by the use of
different fertilizers and seed treatments.
A growth factor that was closely and positively correlated
with yield of dry nuts per plant was the average number of stems
per plant; the correlations coefficient was + .764 ? .018 when
calculated for a group of 284 plants constituting a composite
sample from all plots, subjected to various seed treatments and
fertilization. It thus appears that in a season of deficient rain-
fall relative yields on areas receiving varied treatments could
have been closely foretold by determining several weeks in ad-
vance the average number of main or primary branches on the
Spanish peanut plants.
Nodule Numbers on Lespedeza as Affected by Inoculation of
Korean and by Fertilization. (J. F. Duggar).-Plants of Kor-
ean lespedeza (L. stipulacea) developed in 1931 only a very meager
supply of root nodules. The numbers of root tubercles were in-
creased more than fourfold when Korean lespedeza seed were
inoculated with a culture made from the tubercles of the same
species.
28
Forty-Third Annual Report 29
On the other hand, Kobe, Tennessee 76, and Common les-
pedeza were found to be abundantly supplied with nodules on
the fields of the Experiment Station at Auburn and on adjacent
farms.
When fertilizer was so applied as to involve closest possible
contact with the seed of Common, Tennessee 76, and Kobe lespe-
deza, the several chemicals variously affected nodule numbers.
Basic slag exerted no uniform effect; hydrated lime was of
doubtful advantage; superphosphate was depressive throughout
the early stages of the seedling's life but highly stimulative to
nodule formation in the latter stages; sulphur at the rate of 100
pounds per acre was favorable to nodule formation on plants of
Tennessee 76 and Common lespedeza.
In relative yields of hay, Kobe stood first and Tennessee 76
second, both yielding much more than Common lespedeza or
inoculated Korean. Basic slag and superphosphate appreciably
increased the hay yields of Common and Tennessee 76 lespedeza.