Southernri T,,ricaDevelopment Analysis IPaperi, Agriculture Sector Pre-pared By THE "ISOUTH-EAST OOT IFOIF. INTEPNATEIOAL DVLP L111E.ED S-TATE'-S DEPARTYlL'fENT CTgA' -RICULUE ~TUjiTD STATIESAGENiSCY F-OR DI-IT E RI rT0TZ%4-AL EIMET nd GO~ERNENTOFFIC-IALS AND Oh POL f SWAZ7L-r:L Ce I.-a a-.-i ng S eD~ r17 C~vs e TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD............................... SELECTED COUNTRY DATAS MAP GLOSSARY OF TERMS -AND ACRONYMS....... .......................... I. BACKGROUND-FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT A. History of Swaziland General Economic'Situation Geography and Climate.......... Relationship to Neighbo-ring Countries Dualisms -in Swaziland.......... 1. Dual Cultures* . 2.. Dual Economies .... ........ 3. Dual Governments........... 4., Dual Tenure Systems F. Nature of Present Agricultural Production 1. Crop Production 2. Production of Livestock and Livestock Products I.THE.THIRD FIVE-YEAR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANFOR. AGRICULTURE:- 1978-82.0a09 10 1 1 12 12 13 13 14 15 16 16 17 30 36 A. Objectives B. The Rural Development Areas Program (RDAP) III. ANALYSTS OF CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT As. TheLack of Trained Manpower- B. The Cattle Overgrazing andErosion.Problem C. The.' Lack of Infrastructure in Rural -Areas D. The DomInance. of..the.Republic o f South* Af rica. IV* EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE.TO 'AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. V. MED IUM TO -LON Gl-.RANGE STRATE GY FOR 'U.S.. ASS ISTANCE. AND COLLABORATION-WITH THE. GOS AND OTHER DONORS 'FOR AGRI- CULTURAL-DEVELOPMENT........................ .6 36 37 39 40 46 48 50 52 58. A. The-Rural Development Areas. Program (RDA-P) B. Strategyfor the Manpower Constraint C.D Strategy for the Cattle Overgrazing and. Erosion. Constraint D. Rural. Market, Development........... . * .. 58 * . 61 * .. 62 * .. 64 3 7 8 10. Pt~CcVT I E. Rural Roads ........ ......... . 65 F. Livestock Production and Husbandry . ......... .. 66 G. Irrigation Development.......... . ...... 66 APPENDICES A. Background Papers by Specialists on Key Agricultural Development Constraints i. Anschel, Kurt, Agricultural Manpower and Education in Swaziland .. .. ...... .. . . 67 2. Scofield, William H.., Agricultural Marketing in Swaziland. . ... ...................................... 82 3. Thompson,Ch1Aes,, Soil Resources in Swaziland ........ 93 4. Cross, Dee L., Swaziland Livestock Sector Analysis . . . 99 B. External Assistance to the Agriculture Sector . . . . ..... 105 C. Reference Material ... 1.... ....................... 119 D.Persons Contacted .... . . . .. rT ? ?, ?,, ? b. ? ? ? ? ? 122 FO RE W 0 RD This Agricultural Sector Assessment (ASA) for Swaziland is one of nine being done for a Southern Africa Development Analysis Paper (SADAP). The nine countries include Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. To varying degrees, much recent description and analysis of the agricul- tural sectors of these countries has already been done in connection with previous projects. However, because of the extreme importance to U.S. South- ern Africa policy of these recently emerged and emerging countries into major- ity rule, Congress again instructed the President to do a comprehensive analysis of this region so as to be better able to make timely decisions on the types and forms of assistance that the U.S. could provide. Because of the many recent studies done in connection with other projects, large amounts of descriptive data will be left out of this paper and only summarized in the first chapter called "Background for Economic Development". Instead, a comprehensive bibliography of previous studies, projects and sources will be included, numbered and cited, when appropriate. As directed by Congress, emphasis in this paper will be on: identifying constraints to development; policies and programs necessary to overcome these constraints; and, possible medium to long range U.S. strategy for assistance to this re- gion in collaboration with other donors and the African governments. 2 This paper was prepared or contributed to by the following persons: James L. Stallings, SECID and Auburn University, Core Person and responsible for writing Swaziland ASA; Kurt Anschel, SECID and University of Kentucky, Specialist for Manpower and Education; Dee L. Cross, SECID and Clemson University, Specialist for Livestock; William H. Scofield, USDA, Specialist for Marketing C%(\e M.Thompson, SCS, USDA, Specialist for Soils; and Willie Cook, USAID, Agricultural Development Officer, OSARAC, Mababane Also contributing their information and opinions were the various persons contacted listed in Appendix D which included GOS officials and others. SELECTED COUNTRY DATA - DEMOGRAPHIC. Total Resident and Absentee Population, 1978 Total Resident Population, 1978 Total Absentee Population, 1978 Resident African Population, 1978 Resident European Population, 1978 Other Resident Population, 1978. Male African Resident Population, 1978' Male African Absentee Population, 1978 Female African Resident Population, 1978 Female African Absentee Population, 1978 Median Age, Resident African Males, 1978 Median Age, Absentee African Males, 1978 Median Age, Resident African Females, 1978 Average Age of Resident African Population, 1978 Resident African Population Residing on SNL, 1978 Resident African Population Residing on ITL, 1978 Total Rural African Population, 1978 Resident African Population Residing in Urban Areas, 1978 Resident Europeans Residing on SNL, 1978 Resident Europeans Residing on ITL, 1978 Total Rural Resident Europeans, 1978 554,322 518,264 36,058 500,729 11,227 6,308 238,770 27,005 261,959 9,053 14 29 16 20.5 (72%) 360,041 (22%) 110,344 (94%) 470,385 (6%) 30,344 (4%) .463 (55%) 6,127 (59%) 6,590 4. Resident Europeans Residing in Urban Areas, 1978 Population Density/sq km, SNL, 1978 Population Density/sq km, ITL, 1978 Population Density/sq kmi, Urban Areas, 1978 Population Density/sq km, All Swaziland Average Rate of Population Growth 1966-76 (%/yr) Birth Rate (1970-75) Death Rate (1970-75) Infant Mortality Rate, 1974 Life Expectancy at Birth, 1974, (41%) 4,637 40 15 396 30 3. 1+ 49 22 149 44 ECONOMIC. % of GDP from Agriculture, 1978 (19). 31 % Contribution of Agriculture to Export Earnings 1978 (19) 70+ % of Total Resident African Workforce Employed in Agriculture 1978 (19) 75 % of Population Depending on Traditional Agriculture, es:t. 1978 (19) 50 % Growth in Output/Acre on ITL, 1978 (19) 5 % Growth in Output/Acre on SNL, est. 1978 (19) 3 GDP, Millions $ (Factor Cost), 1977/78, est. (8) $256.7 GDP per capita, Millions $ (Factor Cost) 1977/78, est. (8) $495 Annual Growth of GDP since 1960 (%) 7 GEOOGRAPHY AND CLIMAT E. (8) Region 1. 1ighveld 2. Middleveld 3. Lowveld 4. Lubombo, Altitude Range (ft) 2,39-85 - 6,002- 1,0-82 - 3,510 197 - 2,394 886 - 2,690 Rainfall Range (in) 40 -90 30 - 50 20 *- 35. 25,- 40 Mean Temp. Range .,(OF) 87 -69 9.2 -72 98 -75 92 74 LAND USE 19.74/ 75. (8) ITL, Hectares SNL, hectares Urban Areas, hectares Total Land in Swaziland (46%). (53%) *803,487 923,629 9,300, 1,736,416 Cropland: In Crops Fallow Grazing.Land:- Natural Veld Imp roved Commercial Forest:* Pines Other Speci.es Othe r Farm.Land Other Land. Urban Area Tot als Swaziland 169, 747 (132,230) (37, 517) 1,143,112- (1,048,616) (941496) 95,-590 (21,1919) 84, .444 234,1223 9530.0- 1 ,736,416- ITL 56,1403 (40,59-6) (15,807) 351,378 (25-6.,8 82)' (94,1496), 95,59.0 (21,919) 79,7836 220,280.- 803 ,487' SNL 1139,344 (913,634) (21,710) 791,734 (79''1734) 4,-608- 13,9.43 923,629 I _ n7 QnTIP I n LY O~ ' (3,UUL LtV 6 FAIRMS AND FARM CHARACTERISTICS. (9) (19) (25) No. of ITF's, 1978 est. 790 No. of SNF's, 1978, est. 39,000 Average Size of ITF's, 1978, est. (hectares) 800 Average Size of SNF's, 1978, est. (hectares) 3 % Growth in Output/Hectare From ITF's, 1978, est. 5 % Growth in Output/Hectare From. SNF's, 1978, est. 3 % of Agr. Sector Output From ITF's, 1978, est. 60 % of Agr. Sector Output From SNF's, 1978, est. 40 SEstimated for mid-1978, unless otherwise noted, using projection techniques used in GOS publications, when appropriate, or simple projection techniques otherwise. Most demographic data were based on provisional figures from the latest Census conducted in August 1976 giving total popula- tion (resident and absentee) of 527,791. Details of this census were not yet published but were projected from the most recent data published in each case. To.AZ1LANDsa ui RURAL ..DEVELOPMENI 7PROET . T(omdn Hcosri L.~ an~esvmRAOBR~ -~-No RDA(I RO/ Furu. RO's(OM) ~ . LOw 8 'H 0 a g -.U - Maui FMat~.G~aa ........... R 0000"ooz + In~ar~i~go a *04l S-.- e A- Cblewo iLA * Mines , 0 Forbescoe0 44f a 0 0;1 a- i flZt& a ~ ...... n M T P ........ - . cpi4 l .- e-- ,ireNWAZILAND ~EP. OF aa~IOA SOU /CA 1 TH SOMO CIAN .Zaataa Pa~ a loo 400 ...... .... .... . ... 0, 0 0:: J: S D ..... ..... ;*4 .4- mankay ...... z STA. WHO ......... .... X. W"OF AN X.:-X-Y mapob i 0 ell it .. ........ GIELA MAW RFVN .:XV .......... .. .... ...... H I 6k N-, A.-T.A. L ......... ........... 27*- 0 ............... .. ...... ...... .......... ... ...... SANOUNI-00014041 Nhic ......... .. - ...... ... ....... MAWANGE HLUT lu clol 30' MILES PO 010-. 0 1-0 20 30 40 so KILOMETERS 3T* To Nongoma Dvrban 32* U60mbo GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS. ADB ASA CCU CDC CIDA CLUSA. CODEC DANIDA EDF EMALANGENI EMRS GDP GOS IBRD ITF ITL LILANGENI MCC MPEP MOA 0DM. OSARAC RDA RDAP African Development Bank Agricultural Sector (Analysis, Assessment) Central Cooperative Union Commonwealth Development Corporation Canadian International Development Agency Cooperative League USA Cooperative Development Education Center Danish International Development Association European Development Fund The Swaziland currencywrth$1.1167 in U.S. currency--July 1, 1978 Economic and Marketing Research Section Gross Domestic Product Government. of Swaziland International Bank for Reconstruction & Development (World Bank) Individual Tenure Farm Individual Tenure Land Singular for Emalangeni, the Swaziland currency Ministry of Commerce and Cooperatives Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning Ministry of Agriculture Overseas Development Ministry, UK Office of Southern Africa Regional Activities Coordination Rural Development Area Rural Development Areas Program GLOSSARY OFTERMS. AND ACRONY14S * REDSO RSA SADAP SDSB SECID SMC SNC SNDC SNF SNL TONNE UBS UK UN UNDP 9 Regional Economic Development Support Office Republic of South Africa Southern Africa Development Analysis Paper Swaziland Development and Savings Bank South-East Consortium for International Development Swaziland Milling Company and Swaziland Meat Corporation Swazi National Council Swazi National Development Corporation Swazi Nation Farm Swazi Nation Land A metric ton consisting of 2,204.6 pounds or 1.1023 tons University of Botswana and Swaziland United Kingdom of England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland United Nations United Nations Development Program I. BACKGROUND FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT A. HISTORY OF SWAZILAND. Swaziland is lucky in one respect compared with many other black African countries. It has, for all practical purposes, only one predominant tribe, the Swazi. This eliminates one barrier to development which plagues many black African countries, many tribes with different conflicting cultures. According to legends of the Swazi, the tribe once lived near what is now Maputo (formerly Lorenco Marques). In the late 1700's, the Swazi Chief Ngwane II led a small band. of people over the mountains to what is now southeastern Swaziland. There they found other African- tribes. Ngwane II and the Chiefs who ruled after him united several of these tribes with the Swazi. British traders and Boers first came to what is now Swaziland in the 1930's. In the 1880's gold was discovered. Prospectors rushed in and per- suaded the Swazi chief to sign documents granting them mineral rights and land. Great Britain took control of Swaziland in 1903 after the Boer war in 1902. The territory was kept intact when the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 and was administered by Swazi rulers and the British High Commissioner for South Africa. In 1967 Swaziland gained control over its internal matters and received full independence on September 6, 1968. It is ruled by the long- est reigning monarch in the world, King Sobhuza II, who celebrated his 79th birthday July 22, 1978 and has ruled since 1921. It was admitted to the UN on September 24, 1968. / The term "African" will be used throughout this paper to mean persons of "black" or dark complexion who are indigenous to the African continent. The term "European" will be used to characterize most persons classed as cau- casian who are not indigenous to the African continent except in the last few hundred years. 10 11 B. GENERAL ECONOMIC SITUATION. The total population of Swaziland, estimated at about 554,322 in 1978, is growing at an annual rate of about 3.1%. About 94% of the population lives-in rural areas with approximately 72% in scattered homesteads on Swazi Nation Land and the remainder on individual Tenure Land and in.cities. Swaziland has prospered since achieving independence in 1968. Average per capita GDP was estimated at US$495 in 1977/78 and GDP growth has averaged about 7% per annum since the mid-1960's. The economy is relatively diversi- fied, with agriculture and manufacturing accounting for about 35% and 15% of the GDP respectively. Mining accounts for about 10%. In spite of overall prosperity, a severe dual economy exists. The modern sector accounted for over 80% of the GDP and wage employment and is expanding rapidly while the traditional sector, mostly Swazi on SNL," accounted for less than 20% of the GDP and is growing less rapidly. The population is extremely young with 50 percent of the population under 14 years of age. There are more females than males in the country with an estimated 27,005 males absent from the country--mostly working in South Africa. Swaziland has long had a visible balance of trade surplus. In 1973, ex- ports at R75 million, were more than R7 million higher than imports. In 1974, however, because of high sugar and wood pulp prices, exports rose to R120 million and the surplus exceeded R26 million. The surplus slumped to R1 mil- lion in 1975 mostly due to decline in wood pulp exports. Heavy commitments to future capital investments may raise concern for the future but foreign capital inflow has, so far, offset any trade deficits in the late 1970's and foreign exchange reserves continue to grow. 12 Sugar is consistently the largest export by value, although varying from year to year depending on the world price. Next is wood pulp, followed by iron ore, asbestos, fresh and canned fruit, and livestock products. C. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. Swaziland's great variety of agricultural products is explained by its geography. There are four distinct regions. The first three are steps down from a high plateau. The highest plateau is partly mountainous, with moderate climate and high rainfall, called the Highveld. It supports extensive pine forest and temperate climate crops. Next is a middle area of fertile: soils, rolling grasslands and sufficient rainfall for farming called the Middleveld. The third is low lying, moderately flat, with very little rainfall, but with enough streams for extensive irrigation called the Lowveld. The fourth region rises again into low mountains on the east side of the country, has higher rainfall, and is called the Lubombo Region. Of the country's total land area of 1.7+ million hectares, about 66% is presently used for grazing and about, 10% for cropland. Some 6% is in forests, which are mostly man-made and which support a growing forest industry. Rainfall ranges from 40-90 inches in the Highveld with relative cool temperatures to 20-35 inches in the Lowveld with hotter temperatures. D. RELATIONSHIP TO NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES. Swaziland is surrounded by the RSA on three sides and Mozambique on the fourth. Most of its exports move through the Mozambique port of Maputo (for- merly Lorenco Marques) and, to a lesser extent, through the South African port of Durban. Most of its imports come from South Africa. The country is ruled by a monarch, which gives it little in common, politically, with socia- list Mozambique. Nor does it, as a black African country, have much in common, 13 politically, with-the RSA. Yet it has long had close economic ties with the latter. It is in a customs union with the RSA, which means that most goods move freely between the two countries without duty. The Swaziland currency, the Emalangeni, is kept on a par.with the RSA Rand. The RSA is the major mar- ket for a number of Swaziland's -agricultural products. Its cotton, tobacco, and rice., for example, are mostly consumed in the RSA. And, since Swaziland does not have well established food wholesale markets, many of its other agri- cultural products are sold into the RSA where they are processed. The same or like products may come back to Swaziland. There are important exceptions, however. Its sugar, pineapple, meat and canned citrus are marketed in countries other than the RSA. Often, when these export industries have been in the development stages, the RSA counter- parts have helped, e.g., in the case of sugar. Swaziland, therefore, has conflicting interests in its relationship to its immediate neighbors. While it has little in common politically, its eco- nomy is extremely dependent on good relations with them. E. DUALISMS IN SWAZILAND. 1. Dual Cultures. Two cultures exist side by side in Swaziland, as in many developing countries. There are the Swazi people whose history goes back several gene- rations in this region. These are a black African people with a traditional culture characterized by subsistence agriculture and a strong attachment to cattle as a form of wealth. Only recently has the money economy been appli- cable for a large number of these people. Alongside the Swazi culture is a much smaller number of people not indi- genous to the African continent and who have controlled most of the money or 14 modern economy in recent years. These are mostly of European origin but in- clude a few of other ethnic origins such as Indian. The cultures of these groups are generally- oriented to private ownership of resources, wages, pro- fit, and economic efficiency. These two cultures may come into conflict from time to time. One prob- lem of development is in deciding on National goals in light of the different cultures represented. One aim of the SNC, which is an instrument of the tra- ditional Government representing the Swazi people, is to safeguard the Swazi culture in any development which takes place. At the same time, there is a small, but powerful, educated group of Swazi and expatriates who are oriented to Western culture. Swaziland, like many developing countries, must constantly deal with these problems of conflicting cultures. 2. Dual Economies The Swaziland economy is sharply dualistic with a modern, capital intensive, largely foreign owned and managed sector on the one hand, and a traditional sector producing mainly agricultural products for subsistence on the other. Agriculture is especially dualistic with the modern sector consisting of 790 foreign owned farms and estates, almost entirely on ITL and averaging about 800 hectares (about 1,976 acres) each (19). In general, these are highly mechanized and use modern technology. Consequently output per unit is high and growing at about 5 percent per annum. Although only about one- half of the land of these farms is economically exploited, their output ac- counts for about 60% of the total agricultural sector output. The traditional sector consists of some 39,000 small SNF's with an average size of less than 3 hectares (about 7+ acres) (19). In addition to these small farmsteads, 15 which is where most of the arable land is located, there is communal grazing land,. usually not arable or poorly suited for cultivation. These farms are run largely along traditional lines, employing family labor and draft animals. Although adequate data are not available, . there is reason to believe that agri- cultural output in this sector is growing less than the.population rate of 3.' 1% p.er .annum (19). Consequently, the country is becoming increasingly de- pendent on imports of food, especially maize, the staple food, from the RSA. 3. Dual Governments.. The Swaziland political system-is dualistic with a modern bureaucracy alongside a traditional political system based on royalty. The King, Sobhuza II, has the power and the authority to rule and decide on all policy matters in both governments.' Advisor to the King is the SNC.. Below theSNC .are the appointed chiefs and their councils. The King and the SNC communicate to the chiefs and people through several. regional centers. The centers are established by tradition and encompass several of the chieftaincies. An interesting evolu- tion of these traditional regional centers is their role as centers for donor project development. Social services, employment opportunities, and develop- ment projects are increasingly -.being located in these traditional political centers. While political participation and the Constitution have been suspended for the present, while a new constitution is being written, there is freedom to participate in the discussions and decision-making in the traditional poli- tical structure. Discussion and voting at the SNC and at the Chiefs' Councils is open to any Swazi. In practice, however, discussion is generally limited to important persons and voting is often a symbolic affirmation of the Council's decisions. he traditional political system, however, acts as a communication 16 and participation linkage between the political leaders and the people and, in so doing, can relieve pressure that might build in the Swazi socio-political system. The traditional political sector has authority over questions of land and development of the Swazi Nation \(which makes up about 53% of the total land area of Swaziland), affairs of a traditional nature, and disputes between members of the Swazi Nation. 4. Dual Tenure Systems. Swaziland agriculture is sharply dualistic with a modern capital in- tensive, largely foreign owned and managed sector (including 46% of the land) on the one hand and a traditional sector producing mainly for subsistence on the other. This division results from pre-independence days when use of some land was granted by Swazi rulers to foreign settlers. The remainder (53% of the total) is SNL. The King holds this land in trust for the Nation and gov- erns it through local chiefs. One aspect of tenure on SNL affecting develop- ment is the existence of communal grazing land. In such a case, no one indi- vidual owns the land, or feels responsible for its upkeep and protection, which is one factor leading .to overgrazing and erosion. There is a program started a few years ago by the UK to assist the Swazi in buying back the ITL for SNL. Also, individual Swazi may buy ITL. F. NATURE OF PRESENT AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION. Swaziland agriculture is sharply dualistic. ITL production is modern, capital intensive, much of it expatriate owned and managed, producing mostly irrigated crops for export from large farms or company owned land. SNL pro- duction, on the other hand is traditional, labor intensive, small holdings, 17 producing maize and other crops mainly for subsistence and supporting 84% of the cattle- numbers in the nation. 1. Crop Production. Crop production in Swaziland can be grouped conveniently for most crops into those produced on ITL for export and those produced on SNL mainly for subsistence with asmaller amount for cash income. Generally maize, cotton, groundnuts, dry beans, sorghums, potatoes, and tobacco are associated with SNL while sugar cane, citrus, some cotton, pineapple, wheat, rice, and mis- cellaneous fruits and vegetables are associated with ITL. Relative amounts produced on ITL and SNL are given in the following table for 1974/75. The reader should be cautioned that some change is constantly taking place and that relative amounts may have changed since this time. Also, small amounts may be grown of various crops on SNL and ITL even when no amount is shown in official data. a. Maize. Maize, the local word for corn, is the staple food of the Swazi people. The great bulk of SNL under cultivation is planted to maize. Yet Swaziland is not self-sufficient in maize. Imports vary with the local crop, but average some 25,000 tonnes a year, most of which comes from the RSA. It is estimated that Swaziland's dependence on imported maize is grow- ing, in spite of Government efforts to reverse the trend. Only a small portion of locally produced maize moves into the commer- cial market. Most of the grain milled for commercial sales is imported. The SMC has been given exclusive rights by the Government to import maize into Swaziland and to operate a commercial mill. In return, this organiza- tion must purchase all corn offered by Swazi farmers at no less than Govern- ment-fixed floor prices. In 1974, the last year for which figures are avail- 18 Hectares and- Production- of Dif ferent Crops in Swaziland, 1975/76 (8) I I I Crop 1. Maize 2.- Sugar Cane 3. -Cotton 4. Groundnuts 5. All Dry Beans 6. Sorghtums. 7. All Potatoes 8. Rice. 9. Pineapples LO. Grapefruit .1. Oranges L2. Wheat L3. Pecan Nuts 14. Tobacco 15. Avocados 16.o Bananas 17. Mangoeos. 8.Naartjies'- 19.s Granadel~la 20. Tomatoes Bctares Planted 6.52947 19,060. 17,7583 5,808 3,572. 3,.449 1,787 1, 613 1,205 1,193. 1,063 446 383 334 221 150 114. 82' 56 40 21 b11 12413 Total I Tonnes ITL Hectares Planted 93,911 4,948 1,781,012 183,929 16,723 6,247 2,503 2,598 210 2,320 2 10,737 294 4,1418 -1,613- 17, 394 1,205, 24,832 1,193 29,063 1,063 442 446 7 383 306 74- 117 .221 945 150 729 114 58 .82 33 .56 225 ..40 534 21 Tonnes SNL Hectares IPl anted 5,950 60999 1,7671042 131 6,820 11,33.6 -35,808 189 3,362 4. 3,447 2,218 .1,493 4,1418 17,394 24,-832 29,06-3 442 7 owe 52 260 117, m* 945.. 729 - 538 33. - 225 - si 534 86,836 Tonnes 87,961 13,970 9,903 2, 503 2,409 2,316 8,5 19. 254 IF~ ;LL~L;L U~U L~~~ UL ~ L LC ~ ~ ~ -- -- ---1~L LI I t 19 able, the. SMC purchased only 2,000 tonnes from Swazi producers. At the same time, the .value of maize imports, milled and unmilled, from 1972 through 1975 were as follows: 1972 E 1,063,000 1973 E 1,255,000 1974 E 1,585,000 1975 E 1,638,000 The Government fixes producer prices but the farmer may sell direct to consumers at any price he chooses. Market outlets must abide by the Govern- ment price. The price is set by a formula that incorporates the prices paid in the RSA plus a subsidy to.the farmer. On the average, the Swaziland prices are 12 to 20% higher than the RSA price. Data are not available on the Gov- ernment's effectiveness in enforcing price floors in.the local market outlets. Witchweed, a parasite plant, and inadequate storage are constraints to the development of maize production.- Witchweed can be controlled by weeding or applying herbicides and, to. some extent, by timely planting. Inadequate storage and protection from weather damage, pests, and rot also are respon- sible for losses -.estimated at 20% of the marketed crop. The present low output per hectare ..is another problem caused mostly by poor seed and cultural practices. b. Suar. Sugarcane. is the most important export crop grown, in Swaziland. It is grown in accordance with sucrose< quotas issued by the Swa- ziland Sugar Industry Quota Board. During the 1975/76 season, 44% of the sucrose quotas were held by the two milling companies, and the remainder by independent growers. Among independent growers, about 25% of the quotas were held by Swazi growers, including 264 small holders on individual farms of 20 about four hectares. The Swazi Nation itself held quotas amounting to 8% of the total. Through its shareholding in Ubombo Ranches, Lmt., it has a 40% interest in the.quota (25% of the total) held by that company. Thus, although production of cane remains predominantly on IT?, the role of the Swazi Nation in the sugar industry, through development of its own estates and through equity participation in one of the milling companies, is becoming more im- portant. The cane is grown under irrigation in the hotter and more humid Low- veld region of Swaziland. Until recent years, harvesting and loading of* cane were done by hand. Now, it is widespread practice to use mechanical loaders in the fields, and mechanical harvesting iintroduced. The cane yield is very high by international standards and has averaged over 100 tonnes per hectare in recent years-. The sugarcane is processed in two modern mills, at Mhlune in the northern gorwing area and at Big Bend in the southern area.' The present comhined capacity of the mills is about 220,000 tonnes of sugar per annum. The responsibility for marketing sugar production rests with the SSA, whose Council, composed equally of representatives of the Sugar Millers' Association and the Cane Growers' Association but with an in- dependent chairman, administers the business affairs of the SSA. Just under 10% of the output is sold in Swaziland for domestic consumption or local manufacture, and the balance is exported. The major export market for Swazi sugar is the UK, under long-term marketing arrangements. Formerly, the ar- rangement was under the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement (CSA); but, upon the CSA's expiration in December, 1974, Swaziland was allocated an EEC delivery quota of 120,000 tonnes per annum under the Lom~ Convention. Sugar is sold to the UK under a commercial agreement between the association and UK refiners. For the balance of output, Swaziland has concentrated on developing markets 21 in the United States and Canada. Until 1975 Swaziland had a quota of 27,000 tonnes per annum under the U.S. Sugar Act. Although the long-term guarantee was removed when the act expired in December 1974, the U.S. has remained a principal market, receiving just over 30,000 tonnes per annum. Shipments to Canada also provide a favorable market due to Commonwealth preference, and Swaziland has established herself as an accepted traditional supplier. Swa- ziland has exported to other export markets such as Zambia and Israel in re- cent years, but not normally under long-term contractual arrangements. The growth in sugarcane crop area and cane output brought sugar output to over 200,000 tonnes in the 1975/76 season; therefore, the sugar industry is now reaching the limits of its productive capacity. For some time, the Swazi authorities have been considering the possibility of constructing a third sugar mill, and recently the decision was made to go ahead on the pro- ject, as well as to expand capacity at the existing mills. The additional capacity will probably come into production in the early to mid-1980's, and will bring the industry's processing capacity up to about 350,000 tonnes of sugar per annum. After allowance for growth in domestic consumption of sugar, export availability will be about 320,000 tonnes per annum. c. Cotton. Cotton is an important cash crop, both for the modern commercial farms and for Swazi farmers. It is grown both as a dry-land crop and with irrigation in the Middleveld and Lowveld regions of Swaziland. Swazi farmer participation in the growing of cotton has shown a marked in- crease in recent years. In the 1968/69 crop season, a poor year for overall output, the percentage of seed cotton produced by Swazi farmers dropped to a low of 13% and remained at that level in the two following seasons. By 1974/75 the percentage of seed cotton production accounted for by Swazi far- mers had grown to nearly 49%. 22 Sugar Production in Swaziland, 1971/72-1975/76 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975/76 (In thousands of hectares Crop area Area under cultivation 15.0 16.7 18.4 18.9 19.0 Area harvested 13.6 15.0 16.3 16.6 17.1 (In thousands of metric tons) Production Cane 1,515.1 1,506.4 1,595.9 1,767.0 1,867.0 Sucrose 207.4 202.3 202.8 232.8 244.2 Sugar 177.2 171.4 171.2 195.5 208.2 Yields Cane yield per hectare harvested 111.8 100.6 98.0 106.6 109.0 Sucrose per ton of cane 13.7 13.4 12.7 13.2 13.1 Sugar per ton of cane 11.7 11.4 10.7 11.1 11.2 Source: Swaziland Sugar Association, Annual Report, 1975/76. 23 The resurgence in cotton production by Swazi farmers reflects the emer- gence of a more favorable price .situation, and the promotional efforts of the Cotton Board, the MOA,. and the.. cotton ginnery at.Matsapa. Through these agencies, substantial improvements have been made in the provision of improved seeds, disease control techniques, marketing, and credit to Swazi farmers. In 1974/75 the local ginnery at Matsapa absorbed just over half the output of seed cotton, with the rest being sold to ginneries in the RSA. The Cot- ton Board aims to increase production of seed cotton to 33,000 tonnes in 1985. This compares with the 1974/75 output level of 23,00.0 tonnes. If this objec- tive is. realized, another ginnery in Swaziland would be required, and ,ould be built in -the south of the country. Cotton Production in Swaziland, 1968/69-1974/75 (In Thousands of Tonnes) Total Percent Percent Years Tonnes Tonnes of Total Tonnes of Total 1968/69 5.904 5.132 86.9 0.772 13.1 1969/70 7.265 6.305 86.8 0.960 13.2 1970/71 9.834 8.530 86.7 1.304 13.3 1971/72 12.397 10.115 81.6 2.282 18.4 1972/73 12,535 9.521 76.0 3.013 24.0 1973/74 17.644 11.449 64.9 6.195 35.1 1974/75 22.618 11.578 51.2 11.040 48.8 SOURCE: Swaziland Cotton Board, Annual LV _ .i Report and AcPont'*.Deeme. 197 24 d. Groundnuts. Swazi farmers grow groundnuts mostly for home con- sumption and only insiginificant quantities are marketed commercially. They are grown mostly in the Middleveld and Lowveld regions. Only about 5,800 hectares were devoted to the crop in 1975 and this amount is only expected to expand slightly as population expands. e. Dry Beans. Production in Swaziland in 1977 was estimated ate . D .... ,". .. ... -? 1,000 tonnes per annum, and is grown primarily for subsistence purposes on SNL, with only small quantities being sold commercially. A commercial com- pany based at Manzini purchases and packages between 40-100 tonnes per annum for distribution to retailers. The present annual import requirements is estimated at 900 tonnes. Production in the future is expected to expand about in line with the rate of population growth. f. Sorghums. The present area devoted to sorghums by Swazi farmers is approximately 3,000 hectares and this has remained relatively constant for the past few years. The crop is mainly grown in the Lowveld for brewing of homemade beer, although a small proportion is marketed locally (approxi- mately 100 tonnes). Imports from the RSA amounting to 3,000 and 4,000 tonnes/year also are for distribution to breweries. Production in the future is expected to expand only in line with the rate of population growth. g. Irish and Sweet Potatoes. Potatoes in the past, have mostly been grown by Swazi farmers for home consumption, with some reaching local markets. There has been, however, a rapid increase in production in the past few years. This is apparently because of high prices and an available export market to the RSA. 25 h. Rice. Rice .culture in Swaziland is almost entirely restricted to ITL in the Middleveld and Lowveld regions. A major proportion of this crop is grown at the Commonwealth Development Corporation site at Tshaneni where rice is .milled at the Corporation's mill and sold direct to the RSA. ITL production statistics for rice for the period 1971/72-1974/75 are pre- sented in the table. The.area devoted to this crop on ITL is not expected to expand significantly during the 3rd 5-year plan period. Production and Value of Rice (.1971/72-1974/75 Year 1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 Area Harvested (has) 1,699 1,323 1,106 1,613 Production (Mt) 5,645 4,537 3,614 4,418 Value (E) 772,.580 775,550 779,475 679,095 SOURCE: Annual. Statistical Bulletin, 1976. Small areas of rice also are grown by Swazi farmers under supervision of the Chinese (Taiwan) Agricultural Missions at Matsapha, Emvembili and Nkungwini. The Mission supervises a total of 79 farmers and production in 1974 was estimated at 316 tonnes. The Mission intends to have 500 farmers trained in rice production and to cultivate 400 hectares of rice by the end of the third 5-year plan period. Most of the rice produced in Swaziland is sold direct to the RSA market and approximately 10% of the crop is retained for sale to urban retailers. Nearly all of the rice is milled locally. 26 i. Pineapples. Swaziland's pineapple production is on a 5-year cycle: 30 months from planting to harvest, 18 months for the ratoon to be harvested (only one ratoon), then one year for knock down and replanting. The MOA's annual report for 1975 said there was 3,207 acres planted to pineapple. An official of the pineapple company told the U.S. Agricultural Attache in 1977 that there was some 3,500 acres in pineapple. Both may be correct since there has been some expansion. Pineapple Production in Swaziland, 1970/71 -1974/75 Crop Area Quantity Quantity Value of Area Harves:ted Produced Sold Quantity Year (hectares) (hectares) (tonnes) (tonnes) Sold 1970/71 952 621 8,612 8,612 E 131,532 1971/72 778 778 7,918 7,918 113,725 1972/73 1,079 810 18,853 18,853 26,422 1973/74 644 411 21,193 21,193 272,426 1974/75 1,205 310 17,394 17,124 395,733 SOURCE: GOS, Annual Statistical Bulletin--1976. As can be seen from this table, almost all of the pineapple is processed. The rest is sold fresh, mostly in Swaziland and the RSA. The pineapple company produces 85% of the pineapples which it processes on rented land with European managers.. As a matter of policy, the company does not buy land. There is also contract production done by 21 Swazi far- mers and two European. farmers. The Swazi farmers are all in a project started by the UK, CDC some years ago. 27 j. Citrus. Nearly all citrus in Swaziland is grown on ITL with supplementary irrigation. Production is concentrated in three main areas: one in the Middleveld (Engonini Estates, Lomati Valley) and two in the Low- veld. Despite rising costs of production, grapefruit and orange plantings con- tinue to increase so that estimated total citrus production by.the end of the third 5-year plan period will be approximately 100,000 tonnes. Production of limes and naartjies is insignificant but experiments are presently being undertaken for the introduction of exotic orange varieties. Lemon production is declining. Citrus orchards in Swaziland are generally medium to large size with all estates having their own packing facilities. Under the Citrus Act of 1967, the Swaziland Citrus Board was established as the sole marketing agency for citrus produced by growers having more than 50 trees. The Board is af- filiated with the South African Co-operative Citrus Exchange which is res- ponsible for basic marketing policy, distribution, and overseas markets. Swa- ziland sells a portion of its crop in the overseas markets. In addition, canned citrus fruit juices also enjoy a wide overseas market. Though Swaziland has its own brand of citrus, Swazi Gold, it has not gone to the expense of establishing this brand in most overseas markets. It has been useful, however, in areas such as Scandanavia where the RAS's Out- span brand is boycotted by some groups. Most of Swaziland's citrus, however, is marketed under the RSA's Outspan label. Under the Lom. Convention, Swaziland's fruit has a preferential duty in the EEC which the RSA does not hhare. Swaziland also has a duty preference in countries of the British Commonwealth. These Swaziland advantages create a natural temptation for RSA fruit to be marketed as coming from Swaziland. 28 However, the Swaziland Citrus Board carefully policies this situation, a spokesman maintained. Swaziland Citrus Production (1971/72-1974/75) Year 1971/72 1972/72 1973/74 1974/75 Oranges 35,900 36,097 38,190 29,063 Grapefruit 37,136 35,580 35,411 24,830 Lemons 209. 215 39 30 Naartjies 4 23 13 53 k. Tobacco. Commercial tobacco production in Swaziland is centered around Nhlangano, Hlatikulu, Mankayane, Manzini, and Entonjeni in the North. Production on SNL has increased markedly in recent years with the total area devoted to the crop increasing from 308 to 578 hectares over the period 1971/ 72-1973/74. The majority (90%) of tobacco is now produced on SNL. A small quantity of burley or flue cured tobacco is produced on ITL and is marketed through a co-operative at Nelspruit in the RSA. Pipe tobacco produced on SNL is marketed through the Tobacco Co-opera- tive Company Lmt., situated at Nhlangano, with producers receiving a price preset for each grade by the Tobacco Industry Control Board in the RSA. Pipe tobacco marketed in the RSA is sold direct to manufacturers with a small proportion sold locally. Tobacco producers in the RSA are supported by a high import duty on un-processed tobacco and, since Swaziland is a member of the Customs Union, local tobacco producers enjoy the same protection. However, since supplies of RSA tobacco exceed demand, a portion of the crop must be sold on the world 29 market at significantly lower prices. The Board, therefore, allocates annual co-operative quotas and all excess quantities are subject to the lower export price. The value of Swaziland tobacco exports are presented below for the period 1971-1975. Volume and Value of Tobacco Exports, Swaziland, (1971-1975) . Year Volume ..(tonnes) Value (000 E) 1971 171.2 115.1 1972 144.6 92.4 1973 1.59.2 131.7 1974 252.9 232.0 1975 159.5 166.1 SOURCE: Annual Statistical Bulletin, 1976. Intensive efforts will be made to increase the area devoted to tobacco under the RDAP. Anticipated increase in RDA tobacco production by the end of the third 5-year plan period will be approximately 1,750 tonnes. In addition, attempts will be made to increase production in non-RDA's under a new tobacco promotion project. The aim of this project will be to increase non-RDA production by 375 tonnes by the end of the third 5-year plan period. 1. Miscellaneous Vegetables. Vegetable production has increased rapidly in recent years with the area now grown being double the 1969 level of 500 hectares. Practically all of this increased area is on newly irri- gated SNL. Significant potential exists for further expansion, given effi- cient management and careful supervision. 30 Local vegetable production is now rapidly reaching the point where the potential exists for replacing almost all imports from the RSA, although a more organized marketing system will be required to ensure quantity and qual- ity control. Indications are that, at present, local retailers prefer the RSA wholesale markets as a supply source because of their greater reliabi- lity and more consistent quality. Production of winter vegetables in frost-free areas has considerable export potential. Johannesburg, Durban, and Pretoria are large markets acces- ible to Swaziland; and, at present, substantial quantities are sold at these outlets. Considerable potential also exists for supplying export outlets with asparagus: and other premium vegetables which can be produced locally. Under the RDA program, efforts will be made to increase the area devoted to vegetable production through small scale irrigation schemes. Attempts will also be made to improve the marketing, grading and storage facilities. By the end of the third 5-year plan period an additional 250 hectares are expected to have been leveled for small scale irrigation of vegetables in the RDA's. 2. Production of Livestock and Livestock Products. Cattle are, by far, the most important class of livestock raised in Swaziland, although there are a variety of others, also. The following table gives trends in numbers of different classes of livestock in Swaziland over the last 10 years. 31 Livestock Numbers in Swaziland, 1966-76 (19) Class of Livestock 1966 1976 Cattle 491,000 634,000 Goats 220,000 237,000 Sheep 36,000 30,000 Horses, Mules, and Donkeys 18,000 15,000 Poultry 245,000 521,000 Pigs 8,000 18,000 a. Beef Cattle. In spite of the suitable climate and the absence of major disease, the livestock industry in Swaziland continues to contribute little towards the GDP in comparison with other farming activities. A com- bination of factors contribute to this, sulch as lack of proper management in communal grazing lands, social attitudes towards livestock, and ineffi- cient marketing systems which have led to rapid increases in stock numbers resulting in over-grazing and deterioration of grazing lands. In view of the magnitude of the problem, a concerted effort will be made in the 3rd 5-year plan to provide an integrated extension approach aimed at promoting proper range management, forage production, improved breed- ing, and increased offtake coupled with applied research programs aimed at developing improved techniques and the establishment of a suitable infra- structure. The GOS will continue to provide suitable disease control ser- vices in order to support increased animal production. At the same time, the livestock extension service will endeavor to persuade farmers to adopt a more commercial attitude towards livestock farming as a means of obtaining 32 higher incomes. A land consolidation program will help facilitate the pro- motion of livestock productivity and introduction of suitable range manage- ment systems. Improved marketing facilities will be coupled with the use of fattening ranches and feed lots. The program for improved livestock production will include planning, limited, fencing,. bush control where necessary, provision of stock water, and forage conservation. Livestock management practices will include the deter- mination of the indicative stocking rate and the optimum herd structure, the culling of non-productive and surplus animals and provision of improved bulls wherever possible,.. Of a total number of 68,656 animals slaughtered in the country in 1978, 28,227 were handled by the Swaziland Meat Corporation located in Matsapa which operates at about 75% its capacity. Social and institutional factors militate against any rapid increase in the annual offtake from the Swazi herd. However, a program involving animal husbandry extension, intensifica- tion of production and improved marketing was launched and a target offtake of 12% per annum of the herd on SNL has been accepted as a realistic goal for the Third Five-Year Development Plan. Owing to stringent disease control, Swaziland is able to find export markets for its meat and meat. products in such markets as the RSA, the UK, and the EEC. Agreements also have been signed with Gabon and Ivory Coast for the export of beef to these countries. The GOS is continuing to explore new markets for Swaziland beef both in Africa and Europe. In spite of cur- rency fluctuations, prices are generally firm and the prospects for obtain- ing these additional outlets are promising. The main products for export are chilled carcasses and frozen de-boned beef. In addition, small amounts of canned meat, pet food, offal, suet, and hides are also exported. 33 b. Dairy. In spite of its large number of cows, Swaziland depends on imports for much of its milk. Approximately 80% of the nation's milk is imported. This refers only to the milk which goes through commercial chan- nels and does not include that produced and consumed locally by cow owners. It is estimated that only about 1% of milk produced in Swaziland and retained for human consumption is sold through commercial channels. A substantial program to increase dairy production is being conducted through a Canadian technical assistance project. Four hundred calves have been flown in to start a pure bred herd. These will be multiplied and their progeny used to develop several small dairy herds and, hopefully, several large ones. The plan includes: 1. The establishment of a dairy multiplication farm organized on a commercial basis utilizing 400 imported Canadian heifers. Stock from this farm would be sold to progressive local small farmers. 2. Construction of a dairy processing plant. The plant would serve as a central processing plant for the multiplication farm and all other dairy farmers. 3. Construction of a feed mill, utilizing locally available by-products to compound dairy rations for use by.. the multi- plication farm and the small farmers. 4. Construction of two additional milk collection centers, as project progress permits, in order to give small farmers an organized marketing system. 34 Trade in Dairy Products: 1967-1975 (000 E) 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971. 1972 1973 1974 1975 Exports (Butter & Butterfat) 93 87 44 27 42 34 22 7 3 Imports 380 437 551 646 632 586 531 669 1343 c. Poultry. Recent years have brought major developments in the poultry industry in Swaziland, mostly in the private sector. Two privately owned hatcheries were established in the Malkerns Valley to produce day old breeding stock for export. Also., major steps have been taken to train poultry staff for the Extension Services. As a result, the number of specialized poultry extension staff increased from 5 to 14 in the last 5 years, all trained overseas. Poultry production on SNL continued to be hindered by high costs of feed and lack of an organized marketing infrastructure. In addition, the industry was confronted with severe competition from imports from the RSA. In order to increase local production to replace imports, steps are being taken to establish a feed mill at Matsapha which will produce poultry feeds in addition to its primary purpose of producing dairy feed. It is also planned to establish an organized marketing facility under the CCU which would encourage production on SNL and control imports. The Extension Service will concentrate in both RDA's and non-RDA's to promote egg production. Since the broiler industry will be heavily depen- dent on the establishment of a processing plant, it is envisaged that broiler 35 production farms will be promoted within a 60 km radius of Malkerns, where the marketing infrastructure will be situated, in order to ensure viability. It is anticipated that during the period of the Third Five-Year Deve- lopment Plan, the existing poultry distribution centers will be converted into demonstration farms in order to facilitate the demonstration of dif- ferent poultry farming systems. Distribution of chicks will take place from RDA centers where rearing sheds are to be established. d. Pigs. Pigs are kept on a limited scale for domestic purposes. Commercial production would face fierce RSA competition but may be feasible on irrigation schemes using vegetable and crop residues. e. Goats. Goats provide a valuable source of animal protein for many rural families; but, commercially, they play an insignificant role. During recent years, improved goats have been introduced into the country. These include mohair and meat goats from the RSA as well as milking goats from Switzerland. Measures are underway to improve the marketing of goats and by-products. There is also a proposal for a mohair project. II. THE THIRD FIVE-YEAR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR AGRICULTURE: 1978-82 The third Five-Year National Development Plan for Agriculture: 19.78-82 is the document which details the policies and goals of the GOS toward the agriculture sector and details certain objectives which provide the terms of reference for its program of development in the foreseeable future. Most GOS policy is directed toward the subsistence sector on SNL. The primary instrument for carrying out a program of integrated rural development of these areas is the RDAP. Any' donor contemplating aid to Swaziland will be almost compelled to work within this framework, as it is the route that the Swazi themselves have chosen for developing the traditional sector and has already received wide approval from both the traditional government, the modern government, and the people., A. OBJECTIVES. The following objectives have been detailed in the Plan for the tradi- tional agriculture sector on SNL: 1. Strengthening the framework of basic services, particularly agri- cultural and animal husbandry extension, and crop and livestock input supply and marketing. 2. Through (1) above, increase crop yields and introduce more far- mers to cash farming,, especially cash crops of maize, fresh vegetables, cot- ton, and tobacco, thereby increasing marketed production of key food and cash crops. 36 37 3. Continued promotion and expansion of the program for consolida- tion of land holdings, protection of the natural resource base, and creation of physical and social infrastructure in rural areas. 4. Raise the offtake of cattle from the National Herd in excess of any increase in numbers resulting from improved livestockproduction programs, as well as naturally occurring increase, in order to alleviate the existing over-grazing situation. The primary mechan:ismfor carrying out these objectives is the RDAP which has the spe6ific target of doubling existing cash incomes within the RDAs within the 5-year plan period. The GOS is being assisted in this program by a consortium of donors. It is expected that approximately 60% of SNL and rural population will be affected by the RDA schemes in this 5-year plan and that, eventually, all SNL will be incorporated into the RDAP. Within the objectives of the Third Five-Year Plan are embodied most of the constraints to development identified by most donors in.various documents. There are other constraints outside of the RDAs themselves, however, which are enumerated in Chapter V. B. THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT AREAS PROGRAM (RDAP). The basic goal of Swaziland's RDAP is to increase the income and gene- Stn nahiv ti*-.heRA ral standard of living of persons living on SNL. To achieve this, the RDAP is helping Swazi farmers to make the transition from subsistence to commer- cial agriculture, with minimal damage to the Nation's land resource, and with consideration for the social impact of the RDA process on the Swazi culture. The program is divided into three phases: 1. The Planning Phase. An RDA is selected, base data for the area are collected, and a detailed development scheme is designed. 38 2. The Minimum-Input Phase. The RDAP introduces a minimal package of inputs and services to initiate the process of increasing crop and live- stock production and improving marketing operations in the early years. Among the inputs at this stage are improved seeds, fertilizer, and equipment; improved husbandry standards; construction of access roads; a project center; demonstration plots; and provision of extension personnel and staffs for cooperatives. 3. The Maximum-Input Phase. This phase culminates the RDAP process by introducing improved technology, intensive cropping, soil conservation, improved rural infrastructure, and social services. These efforts are based on detailed land use plans developed during the preceeding phase. Since the RDAP began in 1970 with financing from the UK, four RDA's have moved into the third phase.. These four areas account for about 7% of the SNL area and 10% of its population. The GOS has been encouraged by the pro- gress in these RDA's and by the reception the program has received from the local people. Consequently, it has designated thirteen more RDAs for deve- lopment over the next five years. Five of the thirteen are scheduled to attain the maximum-input phase by 1981. Together with the original four RDAs, these thirteen would extend the program to roughly half the SNL and its population. Eventually, the GOS hopes to extend the RDAP to all Swazi Nation Land. In addition to the.. assis.tance of the UK and USAID, the RDA program re- ceives funding from the IBRD, the ADB and the EDF. III. ANALYSIS OF CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT A visitor's first impression of Swaziland, upon entering the country, might well be that Swaziland is a beautiful, modern country, apparently pros- perous, and in little need of much aid in development. Indeed, average data for Swaziland will bear out that it is in much better condition than many of the so-called developing countries of the world. This first impression is misleading, however, as the visitor's first impression will likely come from a series of modern cities, hotels, resorts, and large plantation type agri- culture along paved roads roughly from Mbabane through Manzini and up the Malkerns valley, plus a few other areas. A few kilometers off these corri- dors, however, and one soon becomes aware of another Swaziland; rural areas of subsistence agriculture, where the view of life is much different. When speaking about constraints to development in this paper, therefore, reference is almost exclusively directed to this traditional subsistence sector, and GOS components which deal with it, presuming that the modern sector, while important, can more nearly take care of itself. Also, before listing constraints to development, it should be pointed out that these constraints are both those documented and those alleged by persons interviewed by the writers of this paper. Different readers may, therefore, disagree that certain alleged constraints to development actually exist or their extent. It is hoped, however, that no offense is taken by different readers and that this document is taken for what it is--the opinion of the writers based both on documented and alleged constraints by persons interviewed. Even if subsequently shown to be groundless, certain alleged 39 40 constraints need to be further studied, if such beliefs and allegations exist, in order to demonstrate their truth or falsity. A. THE LACK OF TRAINED IANOWER. The lack of trained. manpower at all levels is probably the most serious constraint to development of the traditional sector of Swaziland, and to the various GOS organizations which deal with it. This also may be true of the moder private sectors, but to a much lesser .extent, as the modern private sectors, both agriculture and. non-agriculture, can usually afford to satisfy their manpower needs by drawing trained Swazi away from other jobs or by importing expatriates. And, because people are free to move from job to job as they please in Swaziland, there is little to stop large companies from paying hfgher salaries and drawing off much needed manpower from the gener- ally lower -paid Swaziland civil service positions. The lack of trained nationals is a condition common to many former colo- nies of colonial powers. It. is now only about 10 years since independence for Swaziland and, as in many former colonies, training and educating local people was largely neglected during colonial times. Also,. injections of money alone usually will not cure the situation immediately, as it takes time to bring students through several years of primary and secondary educa- tion, plus higher education, to qualify for high level jobs. In addition, it takes time for attitudes and aspirations to change. For example, it is common in former colonies, for the local people to have the attitude that education prepares one to teach or to rule. As a result, there is often little aspiration among the local people for employment in technical or prac- tical applied fields. This is especially true in the agriculture sector where an education usually meant an escape to a 'white-collar" job in the 41 city. Parents and young people alike are traditionally little interested in preparing for a career in agricultural production on "family type" farms as the Western world knows. them. Usually their only experience has been with either small subsistence agriculture or large modern vartically integrated factory type agricultural production. It is difficult for people from tra- ditional agriculture to visualize a respectable, profitable, family type agriculture in between. Attitude, therefore, also must change, in addition to education and training, before extensive development in the traditional rural sector can take place and young people aspire to remain on the farm. Also, as many developing countries have found, it is politically danger- ous to have large numbers of rural people suddenly educated and desirous of big city, white collar jobs move to the capital of the country or some other large city. Traditionally, the urban sector cannot absorb these people fast enough and an unhappy, potentially politically disruptive group of unemployed intellectuals develop. Most theory of development of traditional societies now suggest that it is better to encourage development of a money economy in the rural areas in order to produce a surplus of food and other agricultu- ral products to support the growing urban areas and to induce surplus people to stay there. The manpower problem can be further broken down into various aspects as follows: 1. Needs of the Primary and Secondary Education System. Needs in the primary and secondary education systems can apply to the teaching of agricultural subjects as well as to general education in preparation for college training. They can be summed up as follows: a. Lack of teachers and physical resources for both agricultural and general subjects. However, this applies particularly to agricultural 42 subjects. The teaching of agricultural subjects in primary and secondary schools has not been an aim of most developing countries, including Swazi- land, and both the curriculum and teachers are generally inadequate for training young people for returning to the farm. This is complicated by the fact that most students have no intention of returning to the farm after receiving a higher level of schooling. b. The inadequate preparation of primary and secondary school teachers for instructing in the agricultural subjects and, to some extent, in the general subjects, c. Inadequate infrastructure for training teachers in agricul- tural subjects, including curriculum, materials, and facilities. d, Administrative restrictions on number of teachers that may be trained.- 2. Problems in the Certificate, Diploma, and Degree Programs at the UBS. a. Short-term vs. long-term needs. While in the short-run there is a need for greater output from the certificate, diploma, and degree pro- grams to man the many positions now open and planned and to replace expatri- ates, there is also the consideration that, eventually, there will be excess capacity and a surplus of unemployed trained people by the end of the 1980's. This is a common problem of most underdeveloped countries. Such unemployed intellectuals frequently form the nucleus of political unrest. The question is, then should Swaziland gear up to meet short-term needs with possible excess capacity in the future, or, continue to rely on expatriates in the near future and pursue a gradual policy of taining Swazi to replace expatri- ates at a pace commensurate with replacement needs in the future. The GOS has generally opted for the latter policy. 43 b. Losses of trained manpower to non-agricultural agencies and to the private sector. c. Poor quality and .poorly motivated students for entering agri- cultural training. This relates back both to the poor preparation for higher level work in the primary and secondary schools as well as to cultural in- fluences mentioned above, d. Insufficient staff in the UBS and other college level insti- tutions. e. The lack of Swazi with higher degrees to replace expatriates on the. UBS staff and in other college level institutions. f. Insufficient practical work in UBS courses. This is particu- larly important as students may not have had this in their primary and secondary education and they may not have had a farm background. Even if they have been in traditional subsistence agriculture, this experience was probably not appropriate for learning recommended practices. g. Lack of coordination between the M0A and the Scholarship Selection Board in choosing both number and type of students to enter UBS. 3. Needs and Problems of the Extension Service. The Extension Service, of all the civil service infrastructure, should be singled out as a particularly important constraint to development in Swaziland, as it is the key to dissemination of improved techniques in agriculture to the RDA's. It is also in the Extension Services where the greatest shortage of trained personnel now occurs. Problems and needs can be summed up as follows: a. Insufficient staff, both in the MOA and in the RDA's. At present there is a ratio of one extension officer to 500 farm families in 44 the non-RDAs and one to 400 in the RDA's. In addition, many of these are poorly qualified (25). b. Lack of central support services for preparation of materials for dissemination. c. Poor linkage with research programs. d. Few women agricultural extension agents although the majority of farmers are women. Women agents also are needed in the subject matter of home economics. -e. Poor planning of extension programs. f. Lack of training of agents in extension methods. g. Administrative separation of different subject matter branches of the Extension Service resulting in poor coordination of programs, both in the MOA and in the field. h. Inadequate in-service (on-the-job) training such as short courses and seminars for those already on the job. 4. Need for Researchers and Planners. Most research and planning positions in the MOA and elsewhere in Swaziland are expatriates and may be for some time. The Director of Economic Planning, Land Use Planning, and Research (a newly created position in the MOA) indicated in an interview that he had 14 research positions with 8 vacancies. There are presently no Swazi in any of these posts; nor, are there enough in training (25), It takes time to train persons for these types of positions, as they usually require higher level degrees. More Swazi need to be sent for higher degrees to man these positions. 45 5. Need for Farmer Training. While much concern is with training the upcoming generation of Government officials and technical personnel, training of existing farmers in recommended techniques in agriculture may, and has, received inadequate attention. There are some programs for farmer training now, but there are many farmers not being reached or receiving inadequate training. While such training does come, to some degree, from the existing Extension Service, there is a need for expansion of more elaborate programs, such as short cour- ses, etc. in. the RDA's. 6. Needs of the Private Sector for High to Middle Level Manpower. While the main thrust of agricultural development in Swaziland is directed at the subsistence sector, it is a fact that the modern agri- cultural sector also needs trained manpower which it frequently hires away from positions in the Ministries working with subsistence agriculture. Un- less the needs of this sector is met in some way, this will continue to be a problem. Perhaps in the near future some training for careers in modern agribusiness such as the sugar, pineapple, and citrus industries should be included in the curriculum of the UBS. The problem with training for such positions, however, is that these positions may become much more popular than going to the MOA and MCC to work with subsistence farmers The fact should be recognized, however, that many students trained to work for the GOS will end up in private, modern agriculture. 7. Remuneration and Amenities of Employment in the Civil Services. One of the reasons for the high attrition rate of civil servants to private agribusinesses in the past has been the higher salaries and ameni- ties of private employment. Working for the Swaziland Sugar Corporation, for 46 instance, carries with it not only a good salary, but good housing, educa- tion for children, recreation, health care, and other perquisites that the civil service has not been able to match to date. Until the GOS salaries and perquisites, approach those of private industry, holding the most com- petent, employees may be a problem. Some progress is being made in this area recently, however. B. THE CATTLE OVERGRAZING AND EROSION PROBLEM. Swaziland has a severe erosion and sedimentation problem in spite of the fact that all MOA officals do not uniformly agree on the degree of se- verity. This may, therefore, be classed as one of the "alleged" constraints to development. Alleged or documented however, these issues must be faced and treated. One official in the Land Use Planning Division, MOA, estimates the rate of erosion as high as 25 to 35 tonnes :af.soil loss per hectare per year. (23). A maximum acceptable soil loss is usually recommended to be no greater than about 3 tonnes per hectare per year. This is especially a prob- lem in the southern regions of Swaziland, but is true to some degree in most other sections. It is also greatest on SNL in areas of communal grazing. The erosion problem comes about through a complex interaction between cattle overgrazing and the Swazi culture. Swazi culture has, for many gene- rations, been tied to cattle as a store of wealth and for "lobola" or bride price. In this culture, cattle are not looked upon as a farm enterprise pro- duced for subsistence or for profit. There has been little interest in the past in maximizing offtake from the National Herd for sale. Rather, the aim has been to maximize numbers that can be maintained in reasonable condition. This is interestingly verified in a study which noted that as prices of cat- tle rise, fewer are sold and vice versa for a price drop. This is a supply 47 curve for cattle which is downward sloping rather than the traditional upward sloping supply curve as prices rise. This is brought about by the fact that Swazi traditionally sell cattle only to meet certain relatively fixed annual expenses. Therefore, when the price is high, fewer cattle are needed to meet these expenses. The problem is further complicated by the land tenure system in which all SNL is held in trust for the people by the King. The greatest problem is with communal grazing land which usually has steeper slopes and has more susceptibility to erosion. While this subject treats ideological and cultu- ral considerations, it would probably be agreed by most people that man does not take care of assets which are not personally his as well as he does per- sonal property. This is not to say that he is not acting perfectly ration- ally. There is no ..r.ationality, forinstance, in holding down numbers of your own cattle to prevent over-grazing and preserve soil if other people do not do this also. Nor, is there any incentive for an individual to put his labor or other assets into conservation practices on this land unless all users of the land do this also, especially if others continue to abuse the land. There are several assumptions which must be taken as given before recom- mendations for solving this problem can be made. The first assumption is that a severe erosion problem exists. The second is that there is overstock- ing of cattle on much of the grazing land of Swaziland relative to "recommen- ded" levels for maintaining the soil within acceptable erosion levels. A third assumption is that communal ownership of SNL will continue to be the tenure system. Given these assumptions, the MOA has initiated measures in an attempt to solve this problem. Among the measures taken have been generally to in- 48 crease production through better husbandry methods while, at the same time, encouraging a reduction in the stocking rate on grazing land. This action is being carried out through the RDAs, especially those now in the intensive stage of development, but also to some extend in other RDAs. C. THE LACK OF INFRASTRUCTURE IN RURAL AREAS. In addition to improvement in numbers, training and coordination needed in the Extension Service in rural areas, already mentioned as a separate topic, there are a number of other services which are needed to bring the rural area, mostly SNL, to a more developed state. 1. Markets. One of the goals of the GOS is to bring rural people more into the money economy. To do this, subsistence farmers must be induced to produce a surplus of farm commodities to sell for cash. But, most of the marketing infrastructure in the past has been to serve the modern sector. Needed are markets willing and able to buy a range of small lot commodities from far- mers, consolidate them, and to perform grading, processing and other market- ing services. The GOS, through the MCC, has opted to achieve this through cooperatives. Originally these have been mostly suppliers of farm inputs, but the GOS policy is to eventually have cooperatives of a multipurpose nature supplying farm inputs, buying and marketing farm products, and even selling certain consumer goods. Given the nature of Swazi culture, which has a tradition of group discussion of problems, cooperatives will probably fit their culture quite well. If the GOS attains its aims, this infrastruc- ture problem could be solved sometime in the future. To date some purchasing of cash crops from SNL has been done through cooperatives, especially cotton and tobacco, but there is still a long way to go for these and for other commodities, especially fresh produce. 49 2. -Credit. Credit is another constraint to development in rural areas if not available or used. The GOS also includes this as part of its RDAP and it is already in effect in many areas. Credit is being supplied to cotton farmers as well as to farmers to buy farm inputs such as fertilizer and for hiring tractor plowing done, All that needs to be done in the area of credit is to extend and perfect the credit system to more situations, This would include consumer credit in the multi-purpose cooperatives. The SDSB already has a pilot project to expand credit to cotton coopera- .tives in the area of Nhlangano involving keeping good records and with a number of credit supervisors with authority to make loans without coming to the bank to get approval. These will be production loans to farmers limited to E 1,000. 3. Schools and Teachers,. A constraint to development in rural areas of most developing coun- tries is good school facilities and teachers. A start has been made in this direction but more needs to be done. Needed are schools in .the community where people live rather .than having to send children to expensive boarding schools in towns and cities. The system of local public schools, so common in the U.S.,.is looked upon enthusiastically as a new thing in many rural areas in Swaziland. 4. Roads. Regardless of the infrastructure in place in rural areas, such as schools, cooperatives, etc., a rural area is severely handicapped in its development effort without adequate farm-to-market roads. Not only are good roads necessary to get farm products to market during rainy seasons, which are frequently seasons of harvest for some crops, the rural community needs 50 intercourse with the developed sector of the economy for other purposes. Textbooks of development economics talk of exchange of ideas and breakdown of elements of. a culture which are constraints to development as people are more mobile and able to move freely between rural and urban areas. Not only is there freer exchange of people with good roads, but private industries and investments., are more likely to occur in the rural areas providing jobs and opportunities for the rural people. Swaziland has better roads than many developing countries in the modern sector but there is real opportunity for improvement in most rural areas of SNL. D. THE DOMINANCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. The dominance of the RSA may or may not be a constraint to development, depending upon how one looks at it. On the one hand, the RSA provides a market for Swazi products, both farm and non-farm, as well as a convenient and inexpensive source of inputs and consumer goods. This is a definite ad- vantage to Swaziland. in comparison to many developing land-locked countries. On the other hand, there are some definite disadvantages. From a poli- tical standpoint, Swaziland has little in common with apartheid RSA or soci- alist Mozambique. But it is forced into a "marriage of convenience" with both at the moment because of the extreme dependency of its economy upon them. It can pursue a policy of gradual disengagement; but, an abrupt break with either, especially the RSA, would be unfavorable or even a disaster to its economy. More specifically, the migration of Swazi labor to the RSA is a poten- tially disruptive aspect of the tie-in. On the surface it appears to be a plus in the Swazi balance of payments, and usually has been. It is sometimes overlooked, however, how vulnerable the Swazi economy is to a sudden disrup- 51 tion by the RSA of this source of employment. It could happen for instance, that in order to stabilize its own economy in times of recession, the RSA would lay off expatriate workers which could cause instability and an unem- ployed pool of workers in the economies of surrounding labor-supplying coun- tries, including Swaziland. From another standpoint also, Swaziland may need this pool of relatively skilled labor if it could be absorbed gradually as it is made up mostly of males in their most productive age range. Perhaps such a policy of reabsorp- tion should be accelerated. Another potential constraint related to the dominance of the RSA is that Swaziland's continued water supply has not been guaranteed by agreement. It is reported that dams are being built west of Swaziland's borders and the RSA will thus be in a position to control the flow of water in Swaziland's rivers, all of which rise in the RSA. IV. EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT The kingdom of Swaziland was the recipient during 1976 (the latest pub- lished figures by the UN) of approximately US$8.5 million in technical and pre-investment assistance representing about 20% of Swaziland's recurrent budget for the year. Capital assistance of about US$18 million was extended during the period April 1976 - March 1977, principally from the World Bank, African Development Bank, and the United Kingdom, for a total 1976 aid figure of about $26.5 million. The following tables show the distribution of these resources by donor and sector on the aggregate level as reported variously by the UNDP, IBRD AND OECD (24). Table I Donor Distribution of Technical Assistance, 1976 ' United Nations 33.6% United Kingdom 32.9% United States 13.6% Sweden 12.6% Netherlands 3.0% Denmark 2.0% Norway 1.0% Other (incl. Canada) 1.3% 52 I C 53 Table II Sectoral Distribution of Technical Assistance, 19761 Education 30% Agriculture 27% Social Security 13% Transportation & Communication 7% Industry 6% Health 6% Other 11% Table III Donor Distribution of Capital Assistance, 1976- World Bank 40% United Kingdom 32% African Development Bank 7% Sweden 6% R. F. Germany 4% Denmark 3% Canada 3% European Development Fund 2% Other 2% 54 Table IV 1/ Sectoral Distribution of Capital Assistance, 1976- Transportation & Communication 27% Education 23% Agriculture 23% Community Services 18% Health, Industry & Power & Cooperatives 9% A detailed breakdown of past, planned, and continuing donor aid to Swaziland can be studied by project in Appendix VI-B. A. PRESENT AND PROPOSED U.S. AID. 1. Cooperatives and Marketing. This is Project 645-005, now in effect. It. is designed to train Swazi for CCU management positions and to provide housing, vehicles, and other infrastructure for assisting in developing a viable producer oriented cooperative structure providing production related inputs and marketing services to rural farmers. This includes credit. 2. Rural Development Infrastructure Support. This is present Project 645-0068, designed to provide heavy equip- ment and training of operators and. mechanics for land development. This is proposed Project 645-0206 which will organize and establish a produce marketing infrastructure for handling and redistributing surplus This publication also indicated that a loan of about $4.2 million from OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries) was not in- cluded in the above figures as full details were not available when corn- piled. 55 production in areas of demand and to handle export marketing of certain crops. This will include warehousing, processing and refrigerated storage facilities, a small transport fleet, participant training, and technical assistance. 4. Mohair Production. This is proposed Project 645-0210 to support the establishment of a national foundation herd of purebred Angora goats, ewes, and rams, Also included in the project is the training of Extension Agents and farmers in Angora production. 5. Rural Health Manpower Training. This is present Project 645-0062. Under this project, a five-member long-term technical assistance team to design and implement training programs for various categories of nurses and other health workers is provided. Emphasis is on preventative activities in rural areas. Also involved is the design and establishment of hospital and rural health services administrative support systems. 6. Rural Water Borne Disease Control. This proposed Project 645-0087 is designed to reduce the incidence of water borne diseases in rural areas .through provision of personnel, tech- nical assistance, and some construction of facilities. 7. Southern Africa Manpower Development. The purpose of this present project, 645-0069, is to assist the GOS in overcoming its shortage of development-related trained manpower by provid- ing selected operational personnel and related training. This is done through provision of professional and technical training for selected participants to fill key positions and U.S. technicians as operating personnel, pending the return of trained Swazi participants. 56 8. Assistance to the University College of Swaziland in Adult Education. The purpose of this project, 645-0081, is to increase the capacity of the. University College of Swaziland's Department of Extramural Studies to meet mid-level manpower training needs. This is the equivalent of adult education programs in the U.S. This will involve providing U.S. technicians, training Swazi,. and providing some infrastructure. 9. Assistance to the Swaziland Institute for Manpower and Public Admin- istrat ion. This is proposed Project 645-0202 designed to upgrade the staff and curriculum of the Swazi Staff Training Institute in order to help increase the output of lower and mid-level trained manpower who primarily supervise and manage direct public services. 10. Development of Rural Education Centers. This is proposed Project 645-0201. These centers will serve the needs- of rural people who have not completed primary school in provision of training in basic skills of literacy, numeracy,- and communication combined with employment-related or vocational type training. 11. Assistance to Swaziland Institute for Development Research. This is. proposed Project 645-0204 aimed at establishing a university- based research institute with the capacity to independently define and artic- ulate country and regional development constraints, opportunities, and re- quirements, particularly those that pertain to the poor majority. AID will provide technical assistance, training, support the initial costs of research, and build physical facilities for the new Institute. 12. Primary Curriculum Development. This is present Project 645-0009 designed to establish an institu- tionalized Swazi capability for developing primary curricula. In addition to technical assistance, this project will involve production and distribu- tion of prototype curriculum materials for all six primary years. 57 13. Low Income Shelter. This is proposed Project 645-0099 designed to provide at least 2,500 lower income housing units under a Housing Investment Guaranty while develop- ing the GOS's institutional capacity to develop, manage, and finance housing programs for lower income groups. 14. Rural Small-Scale Industries. This is proposed Project 645-0205 designed to assist in-country efforts to identify and exploit promising small and medium scale industrial activities with high employment possibilities. 15. Alternative Energy Research. This is proposed Project 645-0207 designed to develop and test low cost systems of alternative energy sources relevant to the needs of Swazi citizens living on SNL. V. "MEDI~ TO LONG RANGE STRATEGY FOR U.S. ASSISTANCE AND COLLABORATION WITH GOS AND OTHER DONORS FOR AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT The purpose of this SADAP effort is to provide Congress with a medium to long term U.S. strategy for foreign assistance. This paper deals with the agricultural sector in particular. The U.S. has not been the predominant donor in the past in Swaziland; and, it is difficult to come into such a situation and find a meaningful place in concert with other donors. However, it appears that the Swaziland AID mission,. in its present and proposed projects, has done a good job of recognizing the key constraints to Swaziland development and of fitting relevant projects into a group of aid projects already in effect. The SADAP team members who participated in this paper generally agreed that present and proposed USAID projects generally reflect the direction that future U.S. strategy should take. Only minor changes are proposed along with one new project. A. I RURAL AREAS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM (RDAP) As the RDAP is the primary instrument for developing the SNL, which is the traditional sector and in most need of development, the U.S. strategy must be, in a large measure, directed at working through this program. AID became involved in the RDAP in 1971 when it authorized a $2.2 mil- lion loan to the GOS, mainly for the purpose of earth-moving equipment for its new soil conservation construction units. The GOS had established the units the previous year in an effort to reclaim seriously eroded areas and to prevent further erosion. The loan included $110,000 to equip a research 58 59 and demonstration ranch in the Highveld and $290,000 for intermediate agri- cultural credit. In 1972, the U.S. approved a $1.855 million grant project to provide technical services, participant training, and other AID assistance to the RDA's. Included in this grant were the funds to construct and equip a heavy- equipment repair facility. AID also provided a workshop foreman who, after two years, was replaced by U.S.-trained Swazi technicians. Other technical services that AID has provided to the RDA's include a soil conservation engineer for planning, who is now acting as Chief Land Development Officer in the MOA; a soil conservation engineer for design of conservation facilities; animal husbandry and range management officers for the research ranch; and, a marketing research officer in the MOA's economic planning office. AID is attempting to designate and train local counterparts for each of these officials. In 1974, AID evaluated its involvement in the RDA program. A study team determined that the RDA was well designed for dealing with the problem of rural poverty in Swaziland. It also determined that the GOS could not move the program ahead much faster without additional external assistance. The team suggested that AID do what it could to accelerate the RDA program. The report made several recommendations to guide further AID involve- ment in the RDAP. One was to stress institution building within the GOS to improve its ability to design, implement, and evaluate its rural strategy. The team suggested that AID encourage the GOS to review its mechanism for formulating rural strategy and its capability to carry out economically sound projects. The team recommended that AID offer to help the GOS to strengthen its agencies responsible for the RDA's, stressing project management in areas such as soil conservation, equipment maintenance, marketing, extension, 60 research, livestock development, and range management. The study also recom- mended that AID offer to supply RDA-related technical assistance and training requested by the GOS. A 1976 Project Identification Document (PID) suggested that AID narrow its focus to helping the GOS develop the institutions and manpower that would bolster RDA efforts in land planning, land development, equipment maintenance, range management, economic planning and evaluation and administration. The Project Review Paper (PRP), completed early in 1977, was more spe- cific, in its suggestions for further AID involvement in the RDAP. It recom- mended that AID be most concerned with the provision of equipment, repair facilities and the training of of operators and repairmen; with the creation of detailed land use and land development plans and the training of Swazi in this area; with the .development of in.stitutions to provide optimal soil conservation and engineering practices; and, with the coordination of AID efforts in the RDA's with those of other donors. The GOS recently requested that AID examine several aspects of the RDA program, particularly: manpower requirements, the cost-effectiveness of soil conservation practices, and the land development operations of .the MOA. Two studies have been prepared to respond to those requests from the GOS and to evaluate the feasibility of continued and expanded AID involvements in the RDAP. One identifies Swaziland's agriculture-related manpower require- ments, manpower supply and training capacity. The other study examines the operation and adequacy of the heavy equipment purchased by the RDAP with an AID loan and the efficiency of the AID-funded equipment repair facilities. Other foci are the effectiveness of MOA land planning and land development activities--including administrative organization, soil and water conserva- tion practices and range management, and the sociological impacts of the RDA program. 61 It is the consensus of the Study Team and the present SADAP personnel that the RDAP is a well-conceived and useful mechanism for rural development. It is targeted at the lower income, rural population and is in concert with U.S. objectives in Development Assistance. The RDAP also recognizes that a realistic time span of continued concentrated effort of at least a genera- tion or two is required to bring about the economic and social changes envi- sioned. B, STRATEGY FOR THE MANPOWER. CONSTRAINT. There is already much effort among the various donors, including the U.S., to relieve this serious constraint to Swaziland's development. Almost all present and proposed U.S. projects involve training of Swazi, as do those of other donors. These efforts should continue, and be expanded. Some spe- cific recommendations are as follows: I. MOA/GOS should institute a regular program of manpower planning to avoid excess supply of trained agriculturists. 2. In order to reduce unemployment of school leavers in urban areas, public investments should be redirected to rural areas to make them more attractive as living places and enhance the possibility of employment in those areas. Wage structures should be reviewed to reduce disparity between rural and urban incomes. 3. AID and GOS should consider initiation of further projects to strengthen the extension service. Among the elements which might be included are: a. expansion of the UBS certificate course; b. expansion of the public information office of the extension service including provision of necessary equipment and staff; c. increasing the number of film mobiles and similar equipment; 62 d. reorganization of extension to integrate all extension programs and coordinate better with research; e. improvement of the inservice trainingprogram for extension workers . 4. GOS and AID should consider a program to strengthen formal agricul- tural education in Swaziland and speed its establishment. Important elements might include: a. expansion of the diploma program in agricultural education through the provision of additional staff facilities and equip- ment as needed; b. provision of resources necessary to provide for adequate pre- paration of primary teachers at William Pitcher and Nhlangano teachers colleges; c. support of central administration of the agricultural program through provision of needed personnel and equipment for prepara- tion and delivery of teaching materials and supplies; and, d. assisting individual schools to build physical facilities for agricultural education. C. STRATEGY FOR.TE CATTLE OVERGRAZING AND E'ROSION CONSTRAINT. While encouraging and supporting the approach already adopted by the Swazi of reducing cattle numbers through fattening ranches and improvement of the National Herd through breeding ranches and improved breeding stock, the main thrust of the U.S. effort in this problem should continue to be in helping to correct past abuses. The soil conservation and range management aspects of this problem should continue to be stressed and expanded in USAID efforts with heavy equipment, expertise, and training for Swazi. This should extend to all RDA's whether presently intensive or not. 63 This effort should go in concert with an improved soil survey so that specific erosion problems can be better identified and better planning can take place. This presents an opportunity to contribute to the development of Swaziland which no donor is now doing. Soil information now available is based on a reconnaissance soil survey of the Nation by G. Murdoch in 1968. This survey is an excellent general tool and there is no intention of criticizing it in this report. However, according to operational and research scientists, there are severe limita- tions to using the existing survey for detailed.planning on particular fields, as the existing survey is not detailed enough for this. More detailed soil surveys are needed on arable lands and/or other areas where intensive use is planned. The recommendation is for a detailed soil survey of these lands which would have an estimated cost of about $5-9 million. In conjunction with the survey, there is also needed an expansion of basic laboratory data to support sound soil survey interpretations. Very little reliable data exist on the physical, chemical, and mineralogical prop- erties of Swaziland soils. Good soil surveys must be accompanied by these data for making good fertilizer and other recommendations. The U.S. could provide further facilities at the UBS along with technical assistance and training for Swazi for this aspect. Specific recommendations are as follows: 1. Work through the Ministry of Agriculture to accelerate the formal training of highly qualified Swazi's in the soil sciences, (both classification and mapping as well as investigations) range science, agronomy, engineering, and possibly forestry disciplines. This could be done by training in foreign colleges and universities that have these capabilities. Training of qualified women should be considered. 64 2. A detailed soil survey is needed in much of the Nation. A new and modern detailed soil survey should be undertaken in the near future to produce soil surveys for operational planning and as a basis for expanding research information. The new survey should be designed to meet the needs of the foresee.able future and the survey should be. phased into a recognized soil taxonomic system. Of the several systems of Soil Taxonomy now in existence, it is recommended that the system adapted by the Swazi government should be their decision. However, the American system. is the one- now in use in Lesotho and is the most comprehensive one now in existence. The cost of such a National. Soil Survey is difficult to estimate, but probably would range between 5 and 9 million U.S. dollars. 3. A need exists for laboratory data on the physical,. chemical, and mineralogical properties of the soils. The data obtained must be reliable and obtained through standardized and recognized procedures. There is. presently some imited laboratory information available through the Malkerns Research Station, but it is difficult to- relate to kinds of soils. Also, the facility is very l.imited in its mission. D. RURAL MAR T DEVE..OPMENT. The adequacy and efficiency of the marketing systems in Swaziland varies among commodities. It ranges from generally adequate for cotton and tobacco to much less efficient for fruits, vegetables, and several minor crops. Exist- ing deficiencies will become more evident as serious constraints to the suc- cess of the RDAP in an effort to convert subsistence farmers to commercial production. Provision or assurance of marketing facilities in advance of production programs to provide incentives to subsistence farmers to break out of their traditional production patterns is needed. 65 Although reasonably adequate for the present status of the cattle indus- try, further refinements in the cattle marketing system will be necessary if other programs are successful in increasing the annual off-take from the national cattle herd. Developing an effective marketing system for fluid milk and commercial vegetables from small-scale producers will probably be the most difficult. The existing organizational framework for cooperatives organized under the Central Cooperative Union provides the best means for further development of an integrated system of full service cooperatives embracing farm inputs, credit and marketing. Progress has been slow thus far but the combined efforts of several foreign donors, as well as active support from the Govern- ment of Swaziland should eventually produce the desired results. The U.S. is already playing a role in helping create rural input and marketing coops through Project 645-0055. Specifically, it involves training of Swazi for CCU management positions, in addition to providing housing, vehicles, and other coop infrastructure. The U.S. should continue and expand these activities to all RDA's. In addition, the U.S. should consider expan- sion of the coop activity into areas not now covered such as provision of consumer goods and consumer credit. In additon to Project 645-005 already in progress, proposed project 645- 0206 dealing with marketing coops should be implemented and eventually extended to all RDA's to provide warehousing, processing, refrigerated storage facili- ties, a transport fleet, participant training, and technical assistance. E. RURAL ROADS. While there is some rural road improvement taking place through efforts of donors other than the U.S.,there is considerable potential for further projects on this important constraint to development. While difficult to 66 quantify, rural road development would open rural areas to influx of the needed rural infrastructure as. well as improve marketing of farm products. Specific projects needed (although there are many others) include: I. Paving of the Mpaka-Lomahasha road. 2. Improving the Phuzmoya-Big Bend road. 3. Improving portions of the Manzini-Nhlanganos-Mahamba road. 4. Upgrading the Pigg's Peak-Jeppes: Reef road. No comments will be directed to rail and air transportation as this should appear in another sector analysis. F. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AD HUSBANDRY. In the area of cattle, the Swazi are probably on the right track in their present programs to destock and upgrade the National Herd and improve offtake. The U.S. role should. beprimarily in support of the Extension service in promoting these objectives. There is, however, room for projects concerning swine, poultry and goats on SNL. While the U.S. has a proposed mohair project, production and husban- dry of these classes of livestock have largely been neglected. Collection centers for poultry and eggs should be considered as well as a market struc- ture for milk buying. G. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT. Swaziland has already developed much of its irrigation potential in connection with crops on ITL. One source estimates that there remains a further potential for only about a 50 percent increase from surface sources and that sub-surface water potential is limited. Some irrigation projects have recently been developed on SNL and these efforts are continuing. There is probably limited potential for U.S. involvement in further irrigation chemes, but they should be considered. One area for U.S. involvement might APPENDIX Al Agricultural 1anpower and Education in Swaziland Kurt Anschel Introduction This paper presents the results of a one-week study in Swaziland. It was the author's task to: A, Assess the agricultural manpower supply and demand structure in. Swaziland; B. Identify the. major institutions responsible for agricultural education in the country and, through discussions with their personnel, identify any constraints to their full contribution to agricultural development; and, C. Suggest programs and policies for overcoming these constraints. The paper is presented in three sections. In the first section, labor force and employment trends are described. This is followed by a descrip- tion of the types of agricultural education programs available in Swaziland and a brief discussion of their problems. Finally the needs for assistance in three areas are described. I. Labor Force, Wages,. and Employment Trends in Swaziland In 1975, the labor force of Swaziland included 161,000 Swazi workers, (Table 1). Projections which assume that 22,000 Swazis will continue to be employed in South Africa over the next decade indicate that the labor force will increase more rapidly than population because Swaziland's population is 67 be in the area of improving efficiency of irrigation techniques on SNL projects. However, an important policy question needs to be resolved with the RSA on water rights before further extensive irrigation schemes are initiated. 68 so young. While population willgrow at approximately three percent per annum, the labor force will increase at the rate of 3.6 to 4.0 percent. Annually 7,000 to 9,000 new workers will have to be absorbed. Table 1 Active Labor Force in Swaziland 1975, with Projections to 1980, 1985, and 1990 1975 1980 1985 1990 Males 94,300 116,700 140,000 168,000 Females 66,800 78,900 93,000 110,400 Total 161,000 195,600 233,000 278,000 Average Annual Increase 6,900 7,480 9,160 Source: Christopher Colclough and Peter Wingfield Digby, Skills for the Future, Swaziland Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Mbabane, May 1978, p. 2. Currently about 40 percent of the workers are employed in the modern sector (Table 2). The remaining 60 percent are employed in the subsistence economy, largely agriculture. Although growth of the modern sector has been remarkable, and continues to be rapid, a projection based upon current growth rate (4.25 percent) indicates that the labor force will grow twice as fast as employment opportunities in the modern sector. The surplus workers will have to be employed in the subsistence economy, particularly agriculture. The growth rate of the subsistence labor force will be 3.5 to 4.0 percent. In order that income per worker in the subsistence sector remains con- stant, productivity will have to increase. This can only be achieved through the expansion of the area under cultivation and/or more intensive use of exist- ing resources. One of the critical factors necessary to achieving this goal is an adequately manned Ministry of Agriculture, especially the Extension Service. 69 Table 2. Modern Sector Employment by Industry, 1976 with Projections to 1982 1976. 1982 Agriculture and Forestry 28,520 35,000 Mining and Quarrying 3,076 3,000 Manufacturing 8,216 10,600 Electricity and Water 799 1,000 Construction 3,075 5,400 Trade and Hotels 5,093 6,800 Transportation and Communication 2,566 3,200 Finance and Business Services 1,147 1,500 Social and Personal Services 13,723 18,500 Total 66,215 85,000 Annual Average Increase 3,131 Source: Christopher Colclough and Peter Wingfield Digby, Skills for the Future, Swaziland Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Mbabane, May 1978, p. 4. 70 As in most developing countries, skilled manpower is in extremely short supply in Swaziland. In 1977, there were 13,937 skilled Swazi in the labor force, three-fourths of which had ten years or less of education. Almost 45 percent had less than nine years of education. Only three percent of the 1/ skilled labor force, 412 individuals, had a university education,-/ One of the results of this shortage of manpower, is the employment of expatriates to fill critical positions, usually technical ones, for which Swazi are unavailable. Of the skilled manpower in the country, 19 percent are expatriate including seventy percent of those with university degrees. Sixty-five percent of the skilled manpower with two years of university edu- cation or equivalent and 20 percent of high school graduates employed in 2/ Swaziland are non-Swazis.- The bulk of these are employed in the private sector, 69 percent of the total of 3,204. The government employs 321 expatriates, The greatest shortage of skills are those requiring a background in mathematics, science, and the technical areas. Hence, the MOA uses pro- portionately more foreign workers than other branches of government. Although it employs only 8.7 percent of the government's skilled workers, it employs 16.2 percent of its expatriate employees.3/ In total, MOA employs 791 workers of which 717 are skilled workers. By 1982/83 the GOS intends to increase its total labor force to 1,226 of which 1,107 will be skilled. Christopher Colclough and Peter Wingfield Digby, Skills for the future, Swaziland Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Mbabane, May 1978, p. 13. - Ibid; pp. 64-65. 2! The Third Five Year National Development Plan for Agriculture: 1978- 82, pp. 68-70. 71 Table.3 Ministry of Agriculture Manpower 1977/78 and Projection 1982/83 1977/ 78 1982/8 High Level Scales 12 or above74 Middle Level Scales 9-11 182 Low Level Scales 6-8 451 Unskilled. Scales 2-5 84. Total Skilled 71.7 Total. 79.1 Source: The Third Five Year.National Development 1978-82,1 pp. 66-w70. 88 374 645 14 192 194 119 35 1107 390 1226 45 Plan for-Agriculture: -a icrese n is hgh eve The. MInistry plans' only a moderate increamanpower, 14 positions or 19 per-cent of the 77/7.8 level (Table -3). Proportionately the greatest increase. is planned for the middle level positions--diplomats or certi-ficates with experience., By 1982/83.there-are to'be 374 middle level employees- as'. compared to 182- in 1977/78, an. increase of .105 percent. Low level skilled manpower is to be increased an equal -amount.. However,. because the current .numer is -larger, this is proportionately less; 43 percent., Unskilled employment is- to increase 42 percent, from 84 to 119. Capacity to educate this manpower is insufficient but may be excessive in some programs,- U.S. Agency for International Development, Government of Swaziland Manpower Requirement StyM~babane, -September 1977, pp. 32-35. Increase .OP-MUMMMEEMO _ _ MMMOMMMEW 72 Because school enrollments are increasing very rapidly, the shortage of skilled manpower will be largely eliminated in the next several years.-/ In fatt, severe surpluses and resulting unemployment can be anticipated in the 1980's for all categories except degree holders. The supply of degree holders will meet demand by the late 1980's. The major manpower issues with which Swaziland will have to deal are: a) In the short-run these will continue to be a shortage of skilled manpower at all levels, but particularly of degree holders. More acute is the shortage of highly competent Manpower at each level. b) In the near future, existing shortages of skilled manpower will be overcome except of degree holders. As a result many educated young people will find it impossible to locate jobs in the fields for which they prepared. In order to survive, many will be forced to become small farmers. Others will remain in urban areas where they will be unemployed. This together with the large disparities in income can be the cause of substantial social and political unrest.- c) As the GOS is well aware, efforts will continue to be required to improve the science and mathematics capacities of Swazi students. i/ Colclough and Digby, Op. Cit., pp. 37-41 and Richard P. Warestal, Human Resources Development Study for Swaziland, Research Triangle Institute, May 1976, p. 3. 2/ Colclough and Digby, Op. Cit., pp. 29-34. 73 II. Agricultural Education in Swaziland Primary and Secondary Education One of six major goals of the Second National Development Plan was to "Improve the education system -to fit the manpower needs of the economy". / In order to achieve this goal, practical courses have been established in primary and secondary schools in metal working:, drafting, carpentry, and agriculture. The agriculture course was first taught in 1973 and is now taught in standard four and five of LTT primary schools and in FormsI, II, and III of three secondary schools.'- Progress has been substantial. Cur- ricula materials, including books and teachers manuals have been prepared. Facilities, including classrooms, storage sheds, and small animal pens, have been built at the participating schools. A diploma course in agricultural education is taught at the University of Botswana and Swaziland. Plans have been drawn up for training in teaching agriculture at the primary level at the new teachers' college to be built at Nhlangano. In 1978, 1,150 students took the junior certificate examination in agriculture.- However, there is still substantial opportunity to strengthen the program including improving curricula materials, preparing slides and film strips, increasing equipment and materials, and expansion of the program into additional schools. In addition to the formal teaching program in agriculture, 238 schools participate in the School Garden Scheme. In this program the schools are supplied fencing materials, seeds, fertilizer chemicals and tools. Students, 1/ U. S. Agency for International Development, Transition in Southern Africa - Swaziland, February 1977, p. I1-23. 2/ Swaziland Government, The Annual Report Summary of the Ministry of Education, 1977, p. 45. 74 under the guidance of a teacher plant a small plot and sell the produce. However, teachers often are not prepared to teach this program. As a result, it is not very active in many schools. Certificate: Courses Certificate courses related to agriculture are offered by the University of Botswana and Swaziland (Agriculture), Ministry of Agriculture (Animal Health), and Swaziland College of Technology Mechanics (agricultural motor mechanics and heavy equipment operation). Typically these courses require one year to complete. Applicants must have a junior certificate. The larg- est demand for certificate holders is as Field Officers (extension workers). The annual output of this agricultural course at UBS is 40. The first certificate class completed in May 1978. Of the 40 who were admitted to the program two years earlier, 31 actually completed the program and accepted employment with the MOA. It is widely anticipated, however, that a substantial number of certificate recipients will be hired away by the private sector. Hence some expansion is desired to assure the MDA obtains 40 field workers annually. Diploma Courses The following diploma courses relevant to agriculture are part of the curriculum of the UBS: Agriculture Agricultural Education Animal Health and Management Home Economics 75 Twenty students are admitted annually to each of these two-year programs. Entry requires a pass on the Cambridge examination. Typicallystudents admitted to these programs received class three and class four passes. Upon completion, students become middle level employees of the Ministry of Agriculture. MOA extension personnel frequently critize the diploma courses as being too "theoretical", a charge which is stoutly denied by UBS faculty. It was not possible to ascertain which party is correct. However, it does appear that UBS personnel and facilities devoted to the practice program are limited. Degree Programs in Agriculture The UBS offers a Bachelor: of Science degree in general agriculture. Approximately ten Swazis are admitted annually. Students wishing to specialize or undertake graduate education must go abroad. Heretofore, a major weakness of this curriculum results from the poor background students have in mathematics and science at the primary and secon- dary level. As a result, College of Agriculture students are required to take two years of introductory course work. Only two years remain for agricultural courses. However, beginning in 19 7 9 applicants will be required to take a semester-long preparatory course in mathematics and science prior to formally enrolling in the university. This will permit three years of agricultural courses as well as more thorough screening of applicants. Students whose performance on the Cambridge examination was not outstanding will be given an opportunity to prove their capacity. Agricultural Ext ens ion In 1970, Swaziland initiated the Rural Areas Development Program. This program consists of an integrated program for rural development involving 76 crop and livestock extension, health services, road improvements, school con- struction, tractor hire services, construction of water systems, terracing, and construction of dipping tanks. The primary goal of the RDAP is to promote agricultural development and to improve living standards of Swazi farmers.1/ The MOA and the traditional government jointly manage the program. Other ministries also participating are Education, Health, and Local Government. In the future, all agricultural extension services will be offered throughike RDAP. Presentlyssome services are provided in a conventional way in those areas not yet included in RDA, At present, Swaziland has a severe shortage of extension field workers. Only 365 are employed by MOA of which only 50 are crops specialists. By 1982 MOA plans to employ 577 extension agents, including 166 crop specialists. Because of the shortage of personnel, extension has had difficulty in 3/ meeting the demands for its services.- In several parts of the country, personnel have been withdrawn and transferred to the RDA. Personnel is so limited that many farmers cannot be reached. A survey of farmers living within six kilometers of the northern RDA revealed that two thirds had never received a visit from an extension field officer.-I MOA has devised plans to eliminate their problem and has the goal of employing an extension worker in each subject matter speciality for every 200 farmers. I/ World Bank, Swaziland Rural Development Project Appraisal Report, Report No. 1306-SW, January 12, 1977, Annex 2, p. 3. 2/ Third Five Year Development Plan, Op.Cit., pp. 64-69 3,/FION de Vletter, The Rural Homestead as an Economic Unit, University College of Swaziland, 1978, p. 29. 4/ Carol Allan, unpublished manuscript. 77 At the present time, each division of the MOA (agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and forestry) has its own extension program. In spite of the fact, that the production of these commodities is related, there has been little coordination betweent extension programs in these areas. The initia- tion of the RDAP makes integration of extension services even more important. Such a reorganizat ion is currently under consideration. A primary weakness of Swaziland's extension service is its very rudimen- tary program planning and reporting. Plans are made in terms of the desired changes in farmers' behavior, but are not translated into specific activi- ties and step by step procedures for obtaining the desired results. Reports of activities are presented in terms of the achievement of targets, with little reporting of spetific activities. Apparently, programs are rarely written out prior to presentation. Central services for extension are rudimentary. The MDA does not have a printing press, publication staff (editors, photographers, artists, etc.) and has little broadcast recording equipment and visual aids. It only has one partially operative film mobile unit. In order to have an effective extension service, these services must be improved. MOA does not have a well organized in-service, on-the-job training program. At the present, meetings of the extension field workers to improve their skills are only held every two or three years. If the staff is to maintain its knowledge and grow professionally, a regular program of seminars, workshop, and short courses is essential. Needs of the Primary and Secondary Education System The following is a listing of problems of agricultural education in Swaziland. They were largely derived from interviews. Their ordering is random. 78 1. Primary and Secondary Agricultural Education a. Limited capacity to expand the program to additional schools due to lack of teachers and physical resources. b. Inadequate preparation of primary school teachers for instruct- ing agricultural subjects. c. Insufficient personnel and resources for preparing curricula, teaching materials, and for teaching diploma program. d. Inadequate facilities at Nhlangano. e. Recurrent budget limitations limit number of teachers that may be trained and posted. 2. Certificate, Diploma and Degree Programs a. Possible surplus of certificate and diploma recipients emerging during 1980's. b. Probable losses of agriculture certificate recipients to other agencies and the private sector. c. Poor quality and unenthusiastic students enrolled in the dip- loma program. d. Insufficient personnel for the UBS programs. e. The lack of qualified Swazi to replace foreign professors. f. Insufficient practical work in the diploma courses. g. Lack of coordination between Ministries and the Scholarship selection Board. 3. Extension Programs a. Insufficient staff b. Lack of central support services for preparation of materials. c. Poor linkages with research programs. 79 d. Few Women agricultural extension agents although the majority of farmers are women. e. Little attempt or guidance in preparing extension programs. f. Little training in extension methods. g. Crop and livestock extension administratively separated and frequently uncoordinated in the field. h. Infrequent in-service (on--the-job) training such as short courses and seminars. Recommendations 1) MOA/GOS should institute a regular program of manpower planning to avoid excess supply of trained agriculturists. 2) In order to reduce unemployment of school leavers in urban areas, public investments should be redirected to rural areas to make them more-attractive as living places and enhance the possibility of employ- ment in those areas. Wage structures should be reviewed to reduce disparity between rural and urban incomes. 3) AID and GOS should consider initiation of a project to strengthen the extension service. Among the elements which might be included are: a. expansion of the UBS certificate course; b. expansion of the public information office of the extension service including provision of necessary equipment and staff; c. increasing the number of film mobiles and similar equipment; 80 d. reorganization of extension to integrate all extension programs and coordinate better with research; e. improvement of the inservice training program for extension workers. 4. GOS and AID should consider a program to strengthen formal agricul- tural education in Swaziland and speed its establishment. Important elements might include: a. expansion of the diploma program in agricultural education through the provision of additional staff facilities and equip- ment as needed; b. provision of resources necessary to providing for adequate pre- paration of primary teachers at William Pitcher and Nhlangano teachers colleges; c. Support of central administration of the agricultural program through provision of needed personnel and equipment for prepara- tion and delivery of teaching materials and supplies; and, d. assisting individual schools to build physical facilities for agricultural education. 81 Persons Interviewed: - .-.i , William Bell Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture, UBS David Gooday Agricultural Education, UBS C. F. Dludlu Director Agricultural Certificate Program, MOZ/UBS John Menz Chief Economist, MOA Carol Allan Consultant, USAID and Sociologist National University of Lesotho Victor Pungwayo Director of Agriculture, MOA Patrick K. Lukele Senior Agriculture Officer, M0A B. Gumedze Project Manager Central RDAP Wilson McKinley Mechanization Officer Central RDA J. Watson Chief Research Officer Malkerns Research Station Malkerns, Swaziland E. Givon Training Officer, - M0A C. Dawson Planner Ministry of Education Z. Kingsley Planning Officer/Agriculture, MFDP N. Diamini Agricultural Economist, M0A N. Gumedze Senior Veterinary Officer, MOA APPENDIX A2 Agricultural Marketing in Swaziland (Present structure and future potentials, with specific reference to farmers on Swazi Nation lands) William H. Scofield Marketing Economist, Consultant Acronyms CCU - Central Cooperative Union SDSB - Swaziland Development and Savings Bank MCC - Ministry of Commerce and Cooperatives MOA - Ministry of Agriculture CDC - Commonwealth Development Corporation CIDA - Canadian International Development Agency RDA - Rural Development Area SNL - Swazi Nation Land CLUSA - Cooperative League, USA SMC - Swaziland Meat Corporation RSA - Republic of South Africa Summary and Recommendations The adequacy and efficiency of the marketing systems in Swaziland varies among commodities. It ranges from generally'."adequate for'c.otton and tabacco to much less efficient for fruits, vegetables, and several minor crops. Exist- ing deficiencies will become more evident as serious constraints to the suc- cess of the RDAP in an effort to convert subsistence farmers to commercial 82 83 production. Provision or assurance of marketing facilities in advance of production programs to provide incentives to subsistance farmers to break out of their traditional production patterns is needed. Although reasonably adequate for the present status of the cattle indus- try, further refinements in the cattle marketing system will be necessary if other programs are successful in increasing the annual off-take from the national cattle herd. Developing an effective marketing system for fluid milk and commercial vegetables from small-scale producers will probably be the most difficult. The existing organizational framework for cooperatives organized under the Central Cooperative Union provides the best means for further development of an integrated system of full service cooperatives embracing farm inputs, credit and marketing. Progress has been slow thus far but the combined efforts of several foreign donors, as well as active support from the Govern- ment of Swaziland should eventually produce the desired results. It will be a major undertaking, however, requiring at least a decade to develop an effi- cient and functioning system. Agricultural Marketing in Swaziland This paper outlines the current market structure for the principal com- modities produced by Swazi farmers on Swazi Nation lands. It specifically excludes the marketing organization for commodities produced on commercial farms on ITL (shiefly sugarcane, citrus and pineapple) which is generally well developed and beyond the scope for assistance from donor agencies. Swaziland is fortunate in having a wide range of climate and soils cap- able of producing a number of products for both domestic and export markets. These potentials are not being realized because the marketing system is defi- 84 cient in several respects. Significant quantities of vegetables, milk, maize, and other basic foods which could be produced in the country , are imported. Likewise, domestic production is not capable of capitalizing on export market demands. Because of deficiencies in the internal market structure, some pro- ducts are shipped out of the country for assembly, grading or processing and subsequently re-imported. Apart from the commercial farms, which account for about 60 percent of agricultural output, there are 39,000 Swazi Nation farms which have 70 percent of the population and produce mainly for subsistence. Lacking a marketing system, there is little incentive to step up production beyond the level needed for subsistence. Consequently, the major objective stated in the Third Five Year National Development Plan for Agriculture, 1978-82, is to assist Swazi farmers in making the transition from subsistence agriculture to semi-commercial and commercial agriculture. One of the means for achieving this objective is to strengthen the framework of basic services, including extension, input supply, and marketing. As more fully described elsewhere, these efforts are being focused in the Rural Development Areas (RDA's) which are in the early stages of implementation. The existing cooperative system, under the general direction of the Central Cooperative Union (CCU), has been designated at the institutional structure on which to build an efficient marketing system. The longer-term goal is to combine the functions of providing production credit, farm inputs and consumer credit into multi-purpose cooperatives or farm service centers. Such units will become an integral part of rural development projects as they are expanded to cover most of the country. 85 Progress in achieving these goals has been slow, although technical services and capital for physical facilities is now in place as a result of multi-donor assistance, as well as from the GOS, A Cooperative Development Center has been established, as well as a training center to develop skills in accounting, management and operations of cooperatives. Thus far, the major activity of the cooperatives operating under the CCU has been in supplying inputs, accounting for about one-third of total require- ments. Fertilizer tonnage handled has increased sharply. The CCU has also been involved in supplying credit. The credit function rests with the Swazi- land Development and Savings Bank (SDSB) whose previous operations have been geared chiefly to servicing commercial, non-Swazi farmers. The CCU has lacked managerial and technical staff, as well as the physical facilities--warehouses, grading equipment, transportation--mto carty out a marketing program, but one is planned for the future'. Small Farmer Credit Program About one-fourth of Swazi farmers have less than 1 ha, which is not suf- ficient to feed their families at present yield levels. Their credit needs, although in small amounts, are often critical in increasing production to the full subsistence level. However, the present credit system is not designed to handle such needs well. Without land titles, cattle represent the only security available to meet requirements of the SDSB. Thus credit sources are reluctant to make small loans because of high administrative costs and lack of experience in determining credit worthiness. A special trial or experimental program will be needed to design a credit program appropriate to the needs of significant groups of farmers. 86 Concessionary interest rates and terms, as well as a subsidy for administra- tive costs will be needed in the initial phases of the program. In addition to the mechanism for extending credit to small farmers, an educational program is needed to show such farmers how they can use credit effectively to increase food production and their responsibility for repayment. Such a program should be an integral part of the extension efforts in the Rural Development Areas. The USAID technical assistance program for cooperatives initiated in the fall of 1977 will make a substantial contribution to the development of the cooperative structure through training of staff and funds for selected physical facilities. Further expansion of technical assistance will be needed to implement marketing and credit services. Certain administrative changes may be needed to achieve better coordination between the CCU and the Rural Development Program. In addition a permanent source of operating capital for the purchase of inputs will need to be found. Such funds will need to be increased as the cooperatives move into marketing to provide farmers with immediate cash payments upon delivery to collection points. Following are brief descriptions of the current status and needed improve- ments in the marketing system for specific commodities. Maize. A concerted effort is being made to increase yields by providing better seed and wider distribution and use of fertilizer. At least 70 percent of total maize production is consumed on farms where produced, or sold to local mills. Thus, the surplus available for sale and the need for marketing facilities is limited. The Swazi Milling Co., privately owned, is required to buy all locally- produced maize at prices fixed by the GOS slightly above imported maize from the RSA. However, the requirements regarding moisture content, quality, and 87 minimum lot size (30-90 kg bags) precludes this outlet for all but the largest producers. The CCU has conducted a limited maize purchase and assembly pro- gram and handled about 1,000 tons in 1975-76. This program will need to be expanded when the RDA's are successful in increasing production in excess of family subsistence needs. Cotton. Cotton production by Swazi farmers has increased sharply in recent years, accounting for 42 percent of total production in 1975. Eighty percent of Swazi production is handled by the Cotona Cotton Ginnery which pro- vides a limited amount of credit. Prices are fixed by a Cotton Committee in the RSA, and most of the ginned cotton is exported to, or through, that country... Swazi cotton producers must deliver their seed cotton to the gin, which requires arranging for transportation and frequently long delays at the gin. They receive an initial payment, but must wait for final payment in 2-3 installments. These problems have brought itenerent buyers into the market who buy small lots at the farm and pay cash, although their prices are usually less than could be obtained through normal marketing channels. Cooperatives could perform a similar function if trained graders and storage facilities were available. Tobacco. An important and profitable cash crop, tobacco has long been marketed through the Tobacco Cooperative Co. at Nhlangano which operates independently from the CCU. Limited quantities grown near the border go to RSF tobacco cooperatives. Both the Swazi and RSF markets sell via auction. As with other crops produced in small quantities, there are problems in grading at the farm, assembly, and transportation. Some observers believe that Swazi graders should be trained to eliminate dependence on graders from 88 the RSA. Such training would require considerable time and expense, and hence, could not be implemented immediately. Minor Crops. Dried beans, sorghum and groundnuts are grown in limited quantities as subsistence crops and no organized market is needed at the pre- sent level of production. However, there is an unfilled domestic market for beans and sorghum which the RDA's could undertake to meet. Rice is grown almost entirely on ITL. A small-scale rice project spon- sored by the Chinese (Taiwan) Agricultural Mission is now supervising 79 Swazi farmers and intends to expand this program to 500 farmers who would cultivate 400 ha by 1982. The existing rice mill could undoubtedly handle the expected output from Swazi farmers, Vegetables. These crops, chiefly Irish potatoes, tomatoes, onions, and cabbage, offer a promising potential for increased production to meet both domestic and export demands. Production has increased to about 1,000 ha recently, some of which is on recently developed irrigated tracts in several RDA's. Such production is especially promising as it would meet off-season market demands in the RSA. The CCU has considered establishing marketing facilities but presently lacks the special requirements for handling perishables. Commercial produc- tion is now bought by private dealers for distribution to wholesale and retail outlets. Some products are shipped to the RSA for grading and subsequently shipped back to the larger retail outlets in Swaziland. USAID has proposed a new project for funding in FY-1979 to organize a produce marketing infrastructure in connection with its ongoing Cooperative and Marketing project. Funding is requested for district cooperative ware- houses, a cold storage unit, packing, grading and transportation equipment, 89 and participant training. Technical assistance would include a market manager, sales manager, purchasing and grading specialist and a processing specialist. Livestock. Swaziland. has developed one of the best veterinary and health programs for cattle in Africa. This emphasis reflects long-standing cultural values that view cattle as a storehouse and symbol of wealth, rather than a regular source of cash income. This: view has resulted in serious overgrazing and several proposals or actions to increase the annual off-take from the national herd of nearly 700,000 head. Improved marketing facilities would be one means of increasing the contribution of the cattle industry to the national economy. Present market outlets are: (1) the Swaziland Meat Co. which has slaugh- ter, processing and freezing facilities and exports meat and meat products; (2) an auction company willing to provide its services wherever animals and facilities are available. Possibly 15 percent of total marketing move through this channel; and, (3) private sales at dip tanks. Cattle also are exported live for slaughter in the RSA. The major livestock marketing problems are centered in such areas as reliable price information, grading, and alternative market outlets. The establishment of cattle fattening farms by the GOS, as a part of its efforts to reduce overgrazing, provides a means for assembly and grading, and should contribute to improved quality and uniformity of carcasses. Milk. This is an especially difficult product to market efficiently from small-scale producers. Even so, the Swaziland Milk Board has estab- lished collection centers that receive milk from 300 Swazi farmers. The Canadian International Development Agency has agreed to fund 72 percent of 90 a E4.7 million dairy development project during the Third Five Year Plan. Canadian heifers have been imported and a feed mill and processing plant has been constructed. The feed mill also will produce poultry feed. Egg pro- duction is stated to be an enterprise to be encouraged in the RDA's. Present consumption of milk and dairy products is substantially below WHO/FAO recommendations. Only 7 percent of the total supply is produced within the country, and much of this is sold unpasturized by producer-retail- ers. Substantial quantities of milk powder for reconstitution are imported under the World Food Program. Additional imports, mostly from RSA, consist of tinned milk, powder, butter and cheese. More fluid milk is imported for processing in the Dairy Board Plant than is produced locally. Maintaining high and uniform quality competitive with imports, and dis- tributing pasturized fluid milk to outlying areas, is a major problem, as is insuring adequate refrigeration facilities at retail outlets. The establish- ment of a dairy testing laboratory and the installation of a modern milk packaging machine are initial steps taken to strengthen the dairy industry. It is not clear at this time how successful the RDA's will be in stimula- ting production by Swazi farmers. Initially, quantities are likely to be too small for collection and hauling to the Dairy Board plant. But the Board will provide assistance to the local cooperative in the collection and sale at the local level. 91 Persons Interviewed: Ezrom M. Dlamini Deputy General Manager, Designate, CCU Lewis Townsend Deputy General Manager, CCU J. L. Mbingo Deputy Commissioner for Cooperatives, MCC A. V. Kunene Commissioner for Cooperatives, CCU Patrick K. Lukele Senior Agricultural Officer RDA, MOA 92 References: 1. Swaziland Cooperatives and Marketing Project Paper, USAID, May, 1976. 2. The Third Five Year National Development Plan for Agriculture, 1978-82, second draft, September, 1977. 3. Report on the National Seminar on Agricultural Marketing, Ministry of Commerce and Cooperatives, October, 1975. 4. Report on the Agricultural Marketing Seminar for Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, Gaborone, June 1975, FAO Document AL DP/BOT/71/012. APPENDIX A3 Soil Resources in Swaziland Chw\e . Thompson The severe erosion and sedimentation problems of Swaziland are well documented in numerous papers and previous reports. The rates of erosion have been estimated to be as high as 25 to 35 tons of soil loss per hectare per year.- / A maximum acceptable soil loss should not be greater than about 3 tons per hectare per year. The reduction of soil loss must then be a high priority problem needing immediate attention. No nation can survive for long after erosion has taken its toll of the nonrenewable resource that pro-: vides the basis for not only subsistence agriculture but also products for profits and export. The primary problem areas of greatest soil loss are on the Swazi Nation lands that now comprise about 52 percent of the land area of the nation. Some effort is being made to control soil erosion through the Rural Develop- ment Areas Program. However, these RDA areas only cover about 12% of the nation at the moment. Soil information that is now available is based on a reconnaissance soil survey of the nation by G. Murdock in 1968.2 This soil survey is a useable tool for broad or general planning and is now the only survey available. According to operational and research soil scientists there are severe limitations in using the existing survey for detailed planning or for expanding research information. 1/ Spaargaren, Walter, Estimated Soil Loss Due to Sheet Erosion, MOA, Mbabane. 2/ Murdock, G. 1968. Soils and Land Capability in Swaziland, MOA Bul. Nos. 23, 24, 25. 93 94 Also, the reconnaissance survey does not adequately identify the eroding areas. Detailed soil surveys are needed to arable lands and for all areas where intensive use is planned. Without good detailed soil surveys, research information is extremely difficult to expand to similar areas. There is also a lack of basic laboratory data to support sound soil survey interpretations. Very little reliable data exist on the physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of. the soils. Therefore, little can be predicted about the engineering behavior of the soils. Good soil survey interpretations are needed fordeterminingnot only the land use plans and land capabilities, but also in the areas of wetlands, flood plains, steep grazing land, soils suitable for forests and woodland site information, engi- neering behavior, recreation, open space, and for areas of aesthetic value. Additional information, as well as an update of existing data, is needed since the present land capability classification does-not include sub- class information that designates the primary soil problems, i.e., erosion. wetness, soil limitation, or climate limitation. This kind of information is helpful in explaining to lay people the need for land use changes and why certain land treatment recommendations are made and the need for implementa- tion and maintenance. Any conservation and land development plan, regardless of how well planned and developed, cannot -be.. carried out successfully, nor can it be maintained, without the understanding and willing cooperation of the local people. This key point calls for qualified soil scientists, agron- omists, range conservationists, and engineers that can work on a one-to- one basis with the decisionmakers at the field level so that cooperative decision making can be accomplished. One constraint to a new soil survey that we expressed by operational soil scientists is that the people using the old survey now understand it 95 and it would be difficult to train them to accept a more comprehensive pro- duct. Although this may be true, it cannot be a valid reason for stopping the gain of knowledge and understanding of soil behavior in this nation of good agricultural potential. This concept simply reflects the lack of trained people who can use and interpret soil information. Recommendations : 1. Work through the Ministry of Agriculture to accelerate the formal train- ing of highly qualified Swazi's in the soil sciences, (both classifica- tion and mapping as well as investigations) range science, agronomy, engineering, and possibly forestry disciplines. This could be done by training in foreign colleges and universities that have these capabilities. Training of qualified women should be considered. 2. A detailed soil survey is needed in much of the nation. A new and modern detailed soil survey should be undertaken in the near future to produce soil surveys for operational planning and as a basis for expanding re- search information. The new survey should be designed to meet the needs of the foreseeable future and the survey should be phased into a recog- nized soil taxonomic system. Of the several systems of Soil Taxonomy now in existence, it is recommended that the system adapted by the Swazi government should be their decision. However, the American system is the one now in use in Lesotho and is the most comprehensive one now in existence. The cost of such a National Soil Survey is difficult to estimate, but probably would range between 5 and 7 million U.S. dollars. 3. A need exists for laboratory data on the physical, chemical, and minera- logical properties of the soils. The data obtained must be reliable and obtained through standardized and recognized procedures. There is pre- 96 sently some limited laboratory information available through the Nalkerns Research Station, but it is difficult to relate to kinds of soils. Also, the facility is very limited in its mission. 97 Persons Interviewed:. Mr. N. Nkambule, Soil Scientist (Operational) Ministry of Agriculture Mbabane Mr. M. Shongwe, Soil Scientist (Operational) Ministry of Agriculture Mbabane Mr. T. K. Maseko, Soil Chemist (Research) Malkerns Research Station Mr. Mike Jones Soil Fertility Agronomist (Research) Malkerns Research Station 98 References: Murdoch, G., 1968, Soils and Land Capability in Swaziland, Part I, II, III , . Ministry of Agriculture, Bulletin Nos. 23, 24, 25. Doran, M. H. ; Low, A.R.C. ; Kemp, R. L., Overgrazing and Cattle Deve- lopment in Africa. Lessons from Swaziland. Roder, Wolf, 1977, Environmental Assessment, Swaziland, Rural Develop- ment Areas Program, University of Cincinnati and University of Zambia. Government of Swaziland, 1970, General Plan for Development and Utili- zation of Water Resources, Usuta, Mbuluzi, Komati and Lomoti River Basins, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Government of Swaziland, 1977, Soil Conservation Cost-Effectiveness Study. U.S. Agency for International Development in Cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture Rural Development Area Study Team. APPENDIX A4 Swaziland Livestock Sector Analysis Dee L. Cross Livestock Specialist, SADAP Brief Description of the Livestock Sector Livestock is an important source of income for Swaziland. Meat, live- stock and livestock products exports were valued at E3.2 million for 1975. This represented 2.4 percent of total domestic exports. Total cattle num- bers were, estimated at 634,000 head in 1976. There are also approximately 237,000 goats and 30,000 sheep in Swaziland. Most cattle and goats are owned by Swazi farmers and grazed on SNL pastures in a communal grazing arrangement. Of the 634,000 head of cattle, approximately 100,000 head are owned by commer- cially-minded farmers on ITL. These farmers generally employ modern manage- ment techniques. Cattle play a vital role in Swazi society. Cattle ownership, by tradition, confers prestige. They are a measure of wealth and serve a banking function for subsistence farmers. Cattle also serve as the dowry in marriages. In addition to meat from cattle, goats, pigs, and chickens are important sources of subsistence food on SNFA. Also, oxen are used as draft power, although rental of tractor power is beginning to be increasingly used. The local breed of cattle (Nguni) are well adapted to local conditions but they are very inefficient and take 5-6 years to mature under present conditions. Cross breeding with exotic cattle increases their productivity markedly. In 1976, the estimated offtake of cattle on SNL was 8.4 percent. 99 100 Off take of cattle on ITL averaged approximately 15 percent. Major Constraints to Increased Efficient Production Overgrazing, as a result of overstocking, with subsequent soil erosion, is a major problem on SNL. Productivity could be increased substantially by reducing grazing livestock numbers along with good management techniques. Stocking density (hectares/livestock unit) has increased from 2.3 in 1968 to 1.9 in 1975. Cattle numbers on SNL have increased by 3 percent per annum in recent years. The future of agricultural productivity in Swaziland is depen- dent on willingness to correct the overgrazing situation. Use of communal grazing lands, along with the Swazi farmers' attitude toward cattle as a source of wealth, are major contributing factors to overstocking. Also, recent decreases in mortality due to an efficient livestock veterinary ser- vice has ironically contributed to the overstocking problem. With communal grazing, there is no incentive to decrease livestock numbers. In fact, it gives one an incentive to. hold large numbers of livestock, as many Govern-. ment officials and village leaders allegedly do. Participation of officials in solving the overgrazing situation may be hampered by possible conflicts of interest. What is Being Done?. Four Rural Development Areas (RDA's) began in 1970 with financing from the United Kingdom. These four areas account for about 7 percent of the Swazi Nation land (SNL) area and 10 percent of its population. The GOS has been encouraged by the progress in these RDA's and by the reception of the program by local farmers. USAID has begun assisting in these RDA's. In comparison to other African countries, Swaziland remains free of most major animal diseases with the exception of rabies which has occurred 101 sporadically since 1974. Veterinary services are excellent. Foot and mouth disease prevention measures were consolidated by completion of a double cor- don fence and a patrol road stretching from the Usutu River to Mananga and along the Western foot of the Lubombo escarpment. A compulsory calf vac- cination scheme for brucellosis was commenced in 1974. A national beef cat- tle breeding program was established in 1974-75. In order to track breed per- formance on specified ranches (using Brahman and Simmental bulls) a data processing unit was set up in 1975-76. Cattle breeding stations have been completed in the Loweld and Highveld. Improved bulls have been distributed to Swazi stock owners in certain areas to encourage commercially oriented production. Attention has been given to development of "group ranching" by Swazi farmers in the RDA's. Two such ranches have been established, one in the Northern RDA and the other in the Mahlangatsha RDA. Grass fattening ranches have been- established to entice farmers to reduce numbers and prepare animals for slaughter (most cattle are too thin for slaughter). These have had limited success. It has been observed that Swazi cattle farmers do not respond to supply-demand situations as Western cattlemen do. In fact, as price of cattle increase, sales of cattle decrease. There has been a strengthening and re-organization of the Swaziland Milk Board. Milk sales, extremely low from SNL in previous years, through the Board have increased by 170 percent to 8,100 litres/day from mid-1974 to mid-1977. Milk collection centers were established and in 1974-75 this opera- tion resulted in a supply of 1/4 million litres of milk from 300 Swazi:snbsis- tence farmers. At the end of 1976 the Canadians agreed to fund 72 percent of a E4.7 million dairy development. project. Three hundred forty-five dairy calves have arrived to stock that program. In the RDAs, 1-4 dairy cow herds 102 are being started on part of the arable land. Milk pasteurizing, processing, and a feedmill is being planned at Matsapa. Maize to support the dairy industry is one major constraint which is foreseen. Most rural households have poultry for home consumption and some have swine and goats. All are very important for subsistence. Very little is being done to develop poultry, swine, or goats, either commercially or for subsistence. Arbor-Acres Poultry Company, under the auspices of Swaziland Poultry Institute, opened a hatchery and is allegedly interested in expand- ing into other areas. Commercial poultry expansion is severely hampered by strong competition from efficient RSA poultry imports. What Needs to be Done? Many officials in the MOA are quite aware of the overgrazing problem, although some refuse:,.to agree or downplay its importance. Their plans for solving the problem in the future include expansion of the Extension Service in the RDAs with the idea of communicating and convincing the village farmers and their leaders of the value of destocking and good management practices. It is envisioned that a village committee will make these decisions. Also, better communication with the Community Rural Development Board is planned. Legislation to control stocking rates was approved in 1954. The Central Rural Development Board was supposed to enforce this legislation, but has not. Considering the impetus that RDA's presently have, it appears that future U.S. aid should continue to support the RDAs. A pilot project to determine the effectiveness of a well equipped Extension Service to sell the idea of destocking, along with good management techniques, seems feasible. However, large amounts of money should not be put into the RDAs to increase the level of management unless it is shown via a pilot project, that destocking can be 103 accomplished. Further increases in level of management without destocking will only add fuel to the fire. A project or projects to increase the efficiency and level of produc- tion of swine, poultry and goats for household consumption should be consi- dered. This could possibly be accomplished via the Extension Service in the RDAs. Very little attention is being given to these important areas. 104 References and Contacts: 1. Report on a Study Tour of Cattle Ranching Schemes in Kenya and Tanzania, 19 75. N. T. Gumedze. 2. Overgrazing and Cattle Development in Africa: Lessons from Swaziland, 1977. M. H. Doran, A. R4 0 C. Low and R. D. Kemp. 3. Swaziland Rural Development Appraisal Report. 1977. Document of the World Bank, Report No. 1306-5W. 4. Government of Swaziland Soil Conservation Cost Effectiveness Study. 1977, H. L. Kugler, Coordinator. 5. Third Five-Year National Development Plan for Agriculture: 1978-82. 1977. Government of Swaziland. (Draft, December 1977). 6. Backgound Notes--Swaziland. 1977. U. S. Department of State. 7. Swaziland. In: Africa South of the Sahara. 1977-78. London Europe Publi. Ltd. 8. Transition in Southern Africa.... Swaziland. 1977. South Africa Task Force, USAID. 9. The Rural Homestead as an Economic Unit. 1978. Fion de Vletter, Uni- versity College of Swaziland. 10. Personal Communication. M. Butterworth. Livestock Project Manager, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Swaziland. -11. Personal Communication. N. Gumedze, Senior Veterinary Officer, Animal Production, Minstry of Agriculture, Government of Swaziland. B. EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE TO THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR 105 Inventory of on-Going Technical Cooperation Activities in Swaiziland, 1976. (1) (2) ()(4)(5 Assistance Committed Ntr fAssac n Source of For 1976 Duration-Total project LctoCmet hr Project Activity (Title) Assistance (US $ Equivalent) Begin-End Pates N lc niae-Maa (Executive Agency) Total 1976 e SWA/71/005 Agricultural Planning (OPAS) SWA/72/014 Livestock Production and Extension Project One Associate Expert (Pasture Agro- nomist) to project SWA/72/014 Two associateErs(Anima Pro- duction-and Economist)to.project SWA/72/014 SWA/72/015 Crop-Production and Exten- sion Project Two Associate Experts (Tobacco Agrolno- mis t and maize and legumes Agronomist) to Project SWA/72/015 SWA/73/004 Dairy Industry'Advisory Project, SIA/75/009 Dairy Factory Manager. SWA/75/012 Senior Agricultural Economist TF/SWA. 6 (SWE) Aninmal IHea It h (Diploma Course) LNUP (FAO) UNDP (FAQ). 94,589. 630,709 Denmark (FAO) Netherlands (FAO) UNDP (FAO) 5961,723 Netherlands TNDP (FAO) UNDP (FAO) UNDP (FAQ) Sweden (FAO) 125,594 943,000 108,000 39,629 Jan. 1972 to June 1976 163,729 May 1973 to Mar. 1978 20,000 Sep. 1974 to Sep. 1977 40,000 Feb. 1975 to Sep. 1978 157,574 Oct. 1973 to Aug. 1978 40,1000 Dec. 11973 to Aug. 1978 46,025 Dec. 1973 to Dec. 1977 46,172 Oct. '1975 to Oct. 1978 323,334 Nov. 1975. to Nov. 1978 820,300 107,700 Aug. 1974 to Aug. 1979 Ministry of Agriculture Fellowships: $3,600 1/121m inistry of Agriculture Vet. Dept. Equipment: $1,032 Fellowsip:$31,200 Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Encourage milk production and consumption Equipment:- $3,3.32 Ministry of Agriculture Development of an Economic Section within the Ministry: Fellowships: $4',200 UBA,, Faculty of Agriculture 1- Inventory of On-Goi3*ng Technical Cooperation Activities in Swaziland, 1976 (Continued) (1) (2) ()(4)(5 Assis tence Commtted Ntr fAssac n Source of for 1976 Duration-Total Project LctoCmet hr Project Activity (Title). Assistance (US $ Equivalent) Begin-End Dates N lc niae-Ma (Executive Agency) Totl17 ane One Associate Export (AnimalHealth and Managent) to project T1/SWA.6 (SWE) Oke Associate Expert (Veterinary ledi- cine) to project T/SWA.6 (SWE) TF/SWA.7 (SWE) Home Economics (Diploma Course) Two Associate Experts (Home Economics) to project TF/SWA/7- (SWE) TF/SWA.8 (SWE) Lecturers in Agricul- ture Degree Studies, lIDS SWA/76/SIDA/005 Fisheries Officer (OPAS) SWA/76/SIDA/007. Nurition and Home Economics Officer (OPAS) One Associate Expert (Nutrition and IHone Economics) to Project- SWA/ 76/S LDA/OO 7 SWA/76/SIDA/008 Dean/Reader Agricultural Demonstration Project Denmark Nethierlands Sweden (FAD) sweden Sweden (F'AO) Sweden Sweden (FAO) Norwiay (PAO) Sweden (FAO) Republic of China 408s640 1,606,270 49a223 130,656 79,216' 20P000 Jul. 1975 to Jun. 1977 1,-700 Dec. 1976 to Dec. 1977 808065 Nov. 1974 Co Apr. 1978 40,000 Sep. 1974 to*Aug. 1977 94s376 -Oct, 1975 to Oct. 1981 49,223 Jan. 1976 to Dec. 1976 13,656 Jan. 1976 to Dec. 1976 20,000 Jan. 19 76 to Dec. 1976 102,500 Sep. 1973 to Mar. 1978 Not Available January 19 71 Ongoing JBA, Faculty of Agriculture to as of is as so Ministry of Agriculture 95 IS S UBS. Faculty of Agricul- Cure Project of demonstratlon & training which involves a large team of ag. experts & staff, administrative costs, equipment & materials In IHatsapha area. A handicraft promotion project was initi- ated in 1973.* 0-A Inventory -of -On--Going' Technical. Cooperation Activities in Swaziland, 1976 (Continued) (1) (2) (3)(4(5 Assistance Committed Ntr fAssac n Sourc-e of for 1976 Duration-Total Project LctoCmet hr Project Activity (Title) Assistance (us.~ Equivalent) Begin-End Dates N lc niae-Maa (Executive Agency) Total 1976 Agicultural Experiments Rural Development Republic of China. USA Development Personnel and Training USA Not Available 1'1364,000 741,000 Mid-1972 Ongoing. 165,000 461,000 1973 - 1978 Phase 11I of Demonstration Project. Northern RDA Provides 23 perso n years of long-tern technical assis- tance and 12 person" yea'rs long-term training to Minis- try'of Agriculture in 'land use planning/engineering, animal husbandry, range management and heavy equip- ment maintenance. Related commodity support and short- term training also provided. Location; -Mbabane, Manzini and-Highveld Ranch. Provides technical services of a loan appraisal officer to SDSB and land development officer for Ministry of Ag- riculture. Four Swazis are in long-term overseas train- Ing in fields relating to rural development, nut rition, education & development-plan- ning. Other technicians al- ready bn job or under recruit- ment include; Education Plan- ner, Project Coordinator for Low-Cost Housing, Fisheries Officer, Land-Development Con- struction Engineer, & General Manager of Swaziland Develop- ment and Savings Bank Le 00 Inventory of.On-Going Technical Cooperation Activities in Swaziland, 1976 (Continued) (1) (2) ()(4)(5 As*iatance Committed Ntr fAssac n Source of for .1976 Duration-Total Project LctoCmet ,hr ProJect Activity (Title) Assistance (US. A quivalent) Begin-End Dates oPaeIdiae-Ma (Executive Agency) Total 1976 ane Rural Development Operational Specialist Peace Corps (USA) Netherlands Project Manager Rural Develop- Veterinary Investigation (2ief Coordinator Rural Develop- ukent Areas ProJect Manager Rural Develop- 20 OSAS Officers Ministry of Agriculture UK UK UK UK( UK Hot Availale As-of November, 1977 Peace Corps ad- 145 volun- teers in Swaziland, of whoa 41 were In agriclulture and rural development. Total cost approx. $492,000 in 1977 Not Available 124,463 1248463 108,06 124a463 1968 - 1981 Ongoing 33,000 Jan. 1974 to Jan. 1979 33s000 Sep. 1974 to Sep. 1977 33m,000 Oct. 1973 to Feb. 1980 33,000. Oct. 1973 to Oct. 1978 2390260 Ongoing Total Peace Corps Program. for 1976 'was US$513:,000) Fisheries Biolo- gist, 18 a/miMbabane. Se- nior Dairy Officer, 12 n/n, Manzini. Communications & Visual Aids. 16 n/rn, Hbabana. Lab* Technologist, 36 n/m, Mamzini-Mbabane. Computer Programming Statistician, 24 n/n, tbabane. Irrigation Officer, 28 n/n, kManzini. Veterinary Officer. 12 n/n Lubowbo-. Farm Manager, 12 m/n, Mbuluzi. Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture Loca- ted at Mahlangatsha Ministry of Agriculture Loca- ted iaNManzi Located ina Ministry of Agri- cultare, kMbabane. Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Agriculture 0--A Inventory of On-Going Technical Cooperation Activities in Swaziland, 1976 (Continued) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Assistance Committed Nature of Assistance and Source of for 1976 Duration-Total Project Location, Comments Where Project Activity (Title) Assistance (US $ Equivalent) Begin-End Dates No Place Indicated--Mbaban (Executive Agency) Total 1976 Economist UK --- 17,000 Aug. 1976 to Jul. 1978 Ministry of Agriculture Cotton Entomologist UK --- 33,000 1976 - 1978 University Research Statio Cotton Researcher UK -- '- 33,000 1976 - 1978 Project Big Bend Dairy Production Development Canada 3,700,000 581,000 Six Years To develop dairy industry disbursed based on local milk produc in 1976 tion & to expand exports; grant & loan form. Le -A I-A C) CAPITAL. ASSISTANCE TO SWAZILAND. THIS CAN BE IN LOAN, CREDIT, OR GRANT FORM. Country Canada Activity Dairy Cattle Multiplication Scheme. Poultry Distribution Centres Milk Collection Centres Live-stock Feed Milk Seed Multiplication Northern RDA Central RDA Mahlangatsha RDA Southern RDA RDA Overheads Farmer Training Centres Balegane Fattening-Ranch Lowveld Cattle Breedin Station Balegane Cattle Breeding Station Mpisi Farm Livestock Development Dip'Tanks Quarantine Camps Film Project Farm, Surveys Crop Promotion. ill Amount us $ 188,800 93,t150 59,1500 75,7900 90,1000 237,569 204,296 205,195 1881499. 103,500 199,352 11,1500 19,550 453,148.2 101,775 23,1846 27,600 17,250 11,500 129,1128 ~~11,500 1,15,00 Denmark UK 112 CAPITAL ASSISTANCE TO SWAZILAND (CONT"D) Activity Orthophotomapping Sidvokodvo SISA Lavumi"sa Cattle Fattening Ranch Extension Mpisi Farm Feed Mill Bush Clearing Foot .and Mouth Disea se Control.Fence Sitmentaler Study African Development Development Bank B ank Ingwavuma River Bas in Study4872 Coun IUK FRG Amount us $ 221,260 57$500 86,250 23,9000 152,950 55,376 93,150 418,2772 Development Assistance Projects and Programs Anticipated for 1977 8n Byod Pipel-ine Projects' Funded and Unfunded, Ideas Discussed by SADAP Temwt Government and Others, Other Possible. Activities Soaurce~ Conmrnn t rv Rural Development Areas Rural Development Project Rural Development Infra- structure Support UK, EDF USAID $15. 37m total; for 1977/78 eat* expenditure-$3.22,million $2.9 million grant Loan of $5.4 million & grant of $4.2 million for 1978-83 Approved July -1977 this 5-year project will continue the development of four. existing Integrated rural development areas commence development of four other areas. Overall this-project involves nearly 45Z of arable 7 pasture land in country affecting about 1250000 people on .14,500 farms over 400,000 ha in all. Coal to increase mahe, cotton & tobacco production; cattle-farming improvements sought; the OF? grant covers part-of this major undertaking with African Development Bank providing $5.2 million, IRED $4. 1 million, UK 0DM ;$348,000 & Con $4.4 million for a project total of $17 mil- lion. EDF financing will fund eight minimum input areas (schemes Involving supervisory staff, transport, training& technical assis- tance. To provide capital for land development & faci- lities to repair/maintain for the Rural Areas Development Program outlined above. Thin will Include provision of US technicians &Involve training of nationals in US plus provision of equipment. See part 5b for AID data sheet . PhniAe.--ltIdea or Pronosa1 Sore f Tnfa- UK t-) EDF USAJI A L LJIJ W-- L. IL Z La 4-- 4 jL.rL,"L# , ILJ M & % 4.W. %.#UUIL.W %4%.j "a"%. S& L. Estimated Coar New Activity, USAID. Ti tle Funds Proposed Obligation (In. ThousandsofDlas RDA.Infrastructure Support!Security Supporting Assista n-e 78 Number 690-0068 7 (Grant 2 ; L 5 ) Initial E~stimated Final EsiaeCoptonDe Grant Loan, obligation Obligation o rjc Loan~jFY 1978 FY. 1982FT18 Coal; To assist Swazi farmers' in making the transition from Subsistence fa rming. toa semi-commercial and commercial farming, Purpose: .(1) To poie -capital for land development and fclte to. repair/maintain equipment for 'the Rural Development Area Program, and (2) To establish anid train staff for Government institutions in the* design, construction, analysis and evaluation of land development atvte as-related to the overall rural development process.t Since Independence in 1968 the.Government of Swazilan hasaccorded.the-highest priority-to the development of agriculture in the rural.areas. Approximately 90% of the population lives in rural areas, and such programs are a major means by which.the standard'of living of the majority of Swazis could be improved. The chief objective of -the developmentstrategy is to promote the progressive transformation oftraditional agriculture from subsistence to semi-commercial farming in order to raise incomes and create more opportunities for gainful employmenft amongst the rural population. The Rural Development Area pro gram .(RDA), which the Government of Swaziland is. undertaki'ng with assistance from several donors, will ex pand t he.land consolidation, construction of physical-infrastructure, strengthening of basic exten- sion services and increased marketing of cash crops started under earlier-rural development efforts. Host Country and Other Donors ($000); Government of Swaziland IBRD, UK, EEC FT 1978 Program: All Years 7,000 (equivalent in local currency) 8,000 AID-Financed Inputs ($ Thousands) LOAN Land and Road Equipment Shop Building Shop Equipment GRANT Technical Assistance -. (324 pm) (Land Development, Mechanical, Planning, Range Management, Administration and Consultancies) Traii - USThird country and in- country' (149 pm) FY 78 All Years 400 5420 43250 4250 900 900 I22534W 1,975 160 3,200 440 Maor Outputs:, Land Development related farming systems Improved maintenance and repair of heavy -equipment Range rehabilitation and improved management Functioning Government institutions to carry out land development FY 78 All'Years.Comodities- - 6 Pick-up trucks and Kmiscellaneous office equipment Other Costs - Housing for US techni- X cians and local costs for project support X 'TOTALS (LOAN* AND GRANT) x Background: 124 275 7,934 260 300 9,600 v ~~LI L1'1 L- _ - -. ~ I - New Activity, USAID (Continued) Title SoFundfrs HnowrDeeopetProposed Obligation (n Thousandso olas SouternAfria 11anpwerDeveopmnt- Security Supporting A6sistance FY 7 Number433 A~usnber 690-0069.3 Initial I atimated FinalEs i a e Co le on D e Crantj L oanfilibIisa t Ion Ibfaino rjc ____ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ __ FY 1976 fry 1982FY 18 Coal; To help the Government of Swaziland meet its acute shortages of qualified technical and administrative manpower for car- rying out development programs. Purpose: To increase host government effectiveness In Implementing development programs by training local nationals in selected key areas and providing services of skilled American techni- cians to assist with local manpower development while fill- ing selected key civil service posts. Background: For several historical, political, and administrative reasons, Botswana, Swaziland, and Lesotho have smaller bases of. local manpower suitably trained in- techinic al matters. and administration than most former British territories in. Africa. Thus, professional ranks of the civil service a re still domi- nated by expatriates and a critical shortage of trained local manpower exists in technical and general management areas. Recent development planning. has increased needs of this kind. The administrative-manpower base Is stretched thinly across a wide variety of development activities, and the Inability to plan and implement development programs ad equately has become a umajor constraint on absorptive capacity. The AID assistance will provide professional and relevant training for selected participants to fill key positions pire- sently occupied by expatriates, thus meeting the Government's objective in developing an adequate local manpower resource. The role of the U.S. technicians will 1 be to assist in carrying out developmental activities pending the regurn-*of trained participants. Hajor Outputse* FY 78 All Years (Cumulative as of End of FY) Person Months Technical Services Trained Participants Hostuoty-andOber.Donors G0 (Basic salaries. office space, housing, and allowances for participants In training) 360 21 All Years 475 (equivalent In local currency) FYj1978Progam; IN 1978 funding is to provide Initial two year .tours for three U.S. technicians.Other cost funded housing, initial U.S. academic training for three participants, and initial third country training for one participant. AIinancedIiua ($ Thousands) Ft 78 Personnel:- Three U.S, technicians (72'pm) Trin: 3 participants in.U.S. and I parti- cipant In third country (48 pm) Other Costs: Hous-ing for U.S. technicians 300 43 90 All Years 1,P500 520 90 TOTALS:-- 433'-- 2,VIO- -- "~- C I-- C - 433 20110gTOTALS Continuing Activity, USAID Title Funds .. Proposed. Obligation (In ThousandsofDlas Curriculum Development Security Supporting Assistance .FY 78 Number 60009Prior Ref erence _______________________________ FY 1977 Africa Programs, p. 230 Initial Estimated'FinalEsiae CopeonDt GrandXVjjj 1.0an -Obligation Obligation o rjc ________________________________ _____________________ _ y *1975 FY 19 81 ' 18 Purpose: To estab lish an institutionalized*Swazi capability (the Primary Curriculum Unit) .for developing primary curriculum. Major Outputs: 9/30/76 FY'77 FY 7.8 (Cumulative as of end of FY) Progress to Date:s A six-member U.S. contract team-has developed jointly with-the Swazi counterparts a comprehensiveplan for. the preparation of new curriculum materials. This plan has-been approved by'the Ministry of Sducation., and-will now be implemented through testing, revising and mass production. FY 1978 Program: Curriculum Production System Teaching Materials, preparation/ production/distribution system New curiculum test Teacher Training System Trained 'Staff a.- returned participants b. in-service training, Host Country and Other. Donors ($000.) Government of. Swaziland (Local Costs, for personnel and materials) IBRD (Construction of educational facilities and educational equipmen-t) x x x x x x x x x x x x x. x x x x x AID-Financed Inputs 0 Thousands) Personnel: Fundimg for long-term US technicians 8 consultants -(78pm) Training:- Five coutinuing and two long term participants (28 pm) Commodities: TOTAL All Years 6,452 241. C. FY 78 531 65 25 621 Continuing Atv *, USAID (Continued) Tfitle )Funds ... Proposed Obligation (Yn ThousandofDlas Southe ra. Af ricpa Development Person- 7 nel and Training Securit~y Supporting Assistance 121 Nunber 690-0030. 3 Prior Reference Iia siae ia siae opeinDt Crantlil Loan~~ill FY 1911 Africa lPrograms.. p..229 OlF ainY "gaiY fPrjc ____ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ Y 1973 1 y 1978 iY 17 Purpose; To enhanice the host government's effectiveness to implementing its development progr a in selected key areas by providing qualified U.S.technicians and -training for local nationals. Major Outputs: Advisory-Services; (person smonths) Agriculture Education Economic Planning Low Income Housi ng TOTAL Trained Participants: Econqmic Planning. Low Income Housing TOTAL 9/30176 FY 77 FY 7 8 (Cumulative as of end of FY). 69 105* -- 9 -- 12 -- 12 136 9 36 69 138 199 1 5 7 -- 1 2 1 6 12 t govera~~n1*2 HitCo untry and Other Dofors$0) CGovernmendt of Swaziland (Local alaries 8 office-space and allowances for trainees) eam All Years .200 (equivalent In local currency) Progress to Date: he major activities. to date include; (1) the provision of a -technician to operate the small farmer credit window At the IHational ,Development Savings Bank;'(2)-provision of a technician to oversee management. operation, and maintenance of the Government's heavy equipment pool'.which Is being used to develop the Infrastructure associated with the multi donor-supported aural Development Areas Program; and, (3) long tern participant training for two participantsin the above' two areas and for-four other participants in disciplines related to food-production and nutrition. beginning In FY 1971, the project 'covers funding of six Americans associated with educatIon planning, economic planning, low Income housing development., fisheries, andcrop production. Counter- parts willbe given participant.training to prepare them to take over these positions Iin two years $ time. 1-978Porm; (~Thousands) FY 78 Training for 12 participants in home economics, seed.multiplication, education planning. low income housing development, and economic planning (144 pm) J-" 121 Continuing Activity, USAID (Continued) Title Funds . Proposed Obligation (In Thousands of Dollars) Cooperatives and Marketing Security Supporting Assistance FY78 -_ ~ 739 Number 690-0055 Prior Reference Initial Estimated Final Estimted Completion Date Grant l Loani FY 1977 Africa Programs, p. 224 Obligation Obligation of Project _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ j'Fy 1976 FY 1980 FY 1981 Purpose: To assist in developing a viable producer-oriented cooperative structure providing production-related inputs and marketing services to the rural sector. Major Outputs: Host Country and Other Donors ($000): Government of Swaziland (Local salaries, allowances for participants in training) 9/30/76 FY 77 FY 78 (Cumulative as of end of FY) FY 1978 Program: Trained Swazis in Central Cooperative Union Management Positions Sixteen Centers joined to Radio Communications Network Marketing Outlets Primary Societies Offering Market- ing Services Warehouses constructed and well supplied Primary Societies with Trained staff AID-Financed Inputs ($ Thousands) Personnel: - 16 Funding for nine member U.S. institutional contract team (81 pm) 10 3 4 Training: Training for 11 participants (132 pm) Commodities: Processing Equipment Other Costs for Project Support: 12 TOTAL All Years $1,500 0a 00 FY 78 517 118 5 99 739 - C. REFERENCE MATERIAL 1. Africa South of the Sahara. 1977-78. "Swaziland", London Europe Publi- cations, Ltd. 2. Central Statistical Office, GOS. 1975-76. Annual Survey of Swazi Nation Land. 3. Colclough, Christopher and Peter Wingfield Digby, Skills for the Future, Swaziland Min. of Finance and Economic Planning, Mbabane, May 1978. 4. Doran, M. H., A. Ro C. Low, and R. L. Kemp. 1977. Overgrazing and Cattle Development in Africa, Lessons from Swaziland. 5. Durdle, Wayne M. 1978. The Production of Mohair in Swaziland, A Feasi- bility Study, USAID and Tibiyo Taka Ngwane, June 30, 1978. 6. FAO, UN. 1970. General Plan for Development and Utilization of Water Resources, Usuta, Mbuluzi, Komati, and Lomoti River Basins. 7. FAO, UN. 1975. Report on the Agricultural Marketing Seminar for Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, Gaborone, June 1975, FA Document AL DP/BOT/71/ 012. 8,. GOS. 1976. Annual Statistical Bulletin, 1976, Central Statistical Office, P.O. Box 456, Mbabane, Swaziland. 9. GOS. 1977. The Annual Report Summary of the Ministry of Education. 10. Gumedze, N. T. 1975. Report on a Study Tour of Cattle Ranching Schemes in Kenya and Tanzania. 11. Howard, James 0. 1978. Agricultural Attache Reports during January, 1978: (a) Swaziland: Situation, Jan. 20, 1978. (b) Citrus in Swaziland, Jan. 12, 1978. (c) Tobacco in Swaziland, Jan. 11, 1978. (d) Pineapple in Swaziland, Jan. 12, 1978 12. IBRD. 1975. Economic Memorandum on Swaziland, Report No. 852a-SW, Country Programs Dept. II, Eastern Africa Region, Nov. 24, 1975. 13. IBRD. 1977. Report and Recommendation of the President of the Inter- national Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the Executive Directors on a Proposed Loan to the Kingdom of Swaziland for a Rural Development Project, Feb. 9, 1977. 119 120 14. IBRD. 1977. Swaziland Rural Development Project Appraisal Report, Report No. 1306-SW, Eastern Africa Region, Agr. Credit and Lstk. Div., Jan. 12, 1977. For Official Use Only. 15. IMF. 1977. Swaziland, Recent Economic Developments, Contains Confiden- tial Information, August 5, 1977. 16. MCC, GOS. 1975. Report on the National Seminar on Agricultural Market- ing, MCC, October, 1975- 17. Menz, John. 1978. The Impact on the Rural Community of Change from Subsistence to Commercial Farms, Unpublished manuscript, June 1978. 18. MOA. 1976. Directory of Professional and Technical Staff. 19. .MOA, GOS. 1977. The Third Five Year National Development Plan for Agri- culture: 1978-82. Second Draft--For Discussion Purposes Only, Sept. 1977. 20. Murdock, G. 1968. Soils andLand Capability in Swaziland, MOA, Bul- letins No. 23, 24, and 25. 21. Research Triangle Institute, Human Resources Development Study for Swazi- land, May 1976. 22. Roder, Wolf. 1977. Environmental Assessment, Swaziland, Rural Develop- ment Areas Program, Univ. of Cincinnati and Univ. of Zambia, October 1977. 23. Spaargaren, Walter T. 1976. Estimated Soil Loss Due to Sheet Erosion, MOA, Mbab ane. 24. UNDP. 1977. Externally Financed Technical and Capital Assistance-- Swaziland. For Official Use Only. 25. UNDP. 1978. Swaziland's Second Country Programme--1979-1981, Agriculture. Unpublished Draft. 20 June 1978. 26. USAID. 1977. A Framework for United States Assistance Programs in Southern Africa, Office of Eastern and Southern Africa Affairs, Bureau for Africa, March 1977. 27. USAID and USDA. 1977. Government of Swaziland Soil-Conservation Cost- Effectiveness Study, Mbabane, Swaziland. Sept. 1977. 28. USAID, USDA. 1977. Government of Swaziland, Manpower Requirement Study, Mbabane, Swaziland, Sept. 1977. 29. USAID. 1974. Swaziland Agricultural Sector Assessment, Nov. 6, 1974. 30. USAID. 1976. Swaziland Cooperatives and Marketing Project Paper, May 19 76. 121 31. USAID. 1977, Transition in Southern Africa-Swaziland, Southern Africa Task Force, Office of Southern and East African Affairs, Africa Bureau, Feb., 1977. 32. U.S. Department of State. 1977. Background Notes--Swaziland. 33. de Vletter, Fion. 1978. The Rura. Homestead as an Economic Unit, Uni- versity College of Swaziland. D. PERSONS CONTACTED- 1. Adewole, Eric (N) Government Statistician, Central Statistical Office P.O. Box 456, Room 503, Min. of Finance Mbabane, Swaziland 2. Allan, Carol (US) Consultant. in Sociology National University of Lesotho (formerly) Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA (present) 3. Bell, William, Dean (UK) Faculty of Agriculture, UBS Luyengo, Swaziland 4. Butterworth, M. (UK) Livestock Project Manager MOA, - GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 5. Cook, W. F. (US) Agricultural Development Officer Office of Southern Africa Regional Activities Coordination, USAID Mbabane, Swaziland Off. Tel.: 42071 6. Davidson, Mike (S) Economist (Counterpart) MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 7. Dawson, C. (UK), Planner Ministry of Education, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 8. Dlamini, Ephraim V. (S) Economist (Counterpart) MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland -In order to indicate the mixture of Swazi citizens and expatriots contacted, the following codes appear, as appropriate, in parenthesis after each name: (S) = Swazi citizen (US) = U.S. citizen (UK) = U.K. citizen (N) = Nigerian (B) = Belgian citizen 122 123 9. Dlamini, Ezrom M. (S) Deputy General Manager Designate Central Co-operative Union of Swaziland, Ltd. P.O. Box 551 Rome Tel. 52964 Manzini, Swaziland Off. Tel. 52787 10. Dlamini, N. (S) Agricultural Economist MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 11. Sludlu, C. F. (S) Director Agricultural Certificate Program MOA/UBS Luyengo, Swaziland 12. Duncan, Forest (US) Project Design Officer/Economist RDAP Project Paper 13. Durdle, Wayne M. (US) USAID and Tibiyo Taka Ngwane Mbabane, Swaziland 14. Givon, E. (S) Training Officer MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 15. Gooday, David (UK) Agricultural Education, UBS Luyengo, Swaziland 16. Gumedze, B. (S) Project Manager Central RDA P.O. Box 389 Manzini, Swaziland 17. Gumedze, N. T. (S) Senior Veterinary Officer Animal Production, MOA, GOS 18. Jones, Mike (S) Soil Fertility Agronomist (Research) Malkerns Research Station Malkerns, Swaziland 19. Kingsley, Z (UK) Planning Officer/Agriculture MFDP, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 124 20. Kunene, A. V. (S) Commissioner for Co-operatives Ministry of Commerce & Co-ops Mbabane, Swaziland 21. Low, Allen R. C. (UK) Economist (Farm Management) MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 22. Lukele, Patrick K. (S) Senior Agriculture Officer, RDA's(Acting) MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 23. Magagula, L. J. (S) Under Secretary, Ministry of Commerce & Co-ops P.O. Box 526 Mbabane, Swaziland Home Tel. 43652 Off. Tel. 43101 24. Maseko, T. K. (S) Soil Chemist (Research) Malkerns Research Station Malkerns, Swaziland) 25. Mbingo, J. L. (S) Deputy Commissioner Ministry of Commerce & Co-ops Mbabane, Swaziland 26. McKinlay, Wilson (UK) Agricultural Mechanization Officer Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization Section P.O. Box 389 Manzini, Swaziland 27. Menz, John, (US) Director SEconomic Planning, MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland Tel. 52798 Land Use Planning, and Research 28. Morris, A. (UK) Soil Physicist Malkerns Research Station Malkerns, Swaziland 29. Morris, Petter J. (UK) Commercial Officer/Information/Aid British High Commission Mbabane, Swaziland 125 30. Morse,.Ted (US) Acting Regional Development-Officer Office of Southern Africa Regional Activities Coordination, USAID Mb abane, Swazil and. Off. Tel* 42071 3 1. Nkambule, N. (S) Soil Scientist (Operational) MOA, GOS Mbahane, Swaziland 32. Pungwayo, Victor (5) Director of Agriculture MOA,. GO S Mbabane, Swaziland 33. Runnebaum, Bernard (US) Marketing Manager Central Co-operative Union of Swaziland, Ltd. P.O. Box 551 Manzini, Swaziland 34. Shongwe, M. (5) Sol Scientist (Operational) MOA, GOS Mbabane, Swaziland 35. Sibenaler, Professor Charles A. (B) ILO' UN c/o- Hotel "The Tavern t Mbabane, Swaziland 36.' Townsend, Lewis (US-) Deputy General Manager Central Co-operative -Union of Swaziland, Ltd. P..O. Box 551 Manzini, Swaziland Off. Tel. 52787 Off, Tel. 52787 37.6 Watson, J. (UK) Chief :Res earch .Of fic er Malkerns Research - Station Malkerns, Swaziland