BEST
P Iil AC T I(
ENT
IH
IZ
Elizabeth A. Guertal and David Y. Han
Department of Agronomy and Soils
Auburn University
Catherine Smith, Editor
Teresa Rodriguez, Designer
Major funding for this publication was provided by a grant from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Region IV, in cooperation with the Alabama
Department of Environmental Management, through provisions of Section
3 19 of the Clean Water Act, as amended.
Office of Communications
Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station
Auburn University, Auburn,Alabama 36849
IM July, 2002
Information contained herein is available to all persons without
regard to race, color, sex, or national origin.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BEST MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES FOR ALABAMA
SOD PRODUCTION
Why Sod Production in Alabama? ................... 5
Sod -A Natural Best Management Practice .............. 8
The Value of Sod............................... 8
Agronomic Issues of Sod Production 10
Site Selection .............. ... ............... 10
Soil Testing and Analysis ....................... I I
Grid Soil Sampling .............. o..............15
Land Preparation .............................. 15
Establishment ............................... 17
Reestablishment ................................ 9
Best Management Practices for Environmental Protection
on Sod Farms .............................. 21
Conservation Buffer............ ............... 21
No-Spray Zones.................... ........... 22
Clipping Management and Composting ............... .. 23
Composting ......... ...................... 24
Streambank Stabilization .... o......... ... ......... 26
Irrigation ........................ ........... 28
W ater Quality ... ...................................... 31
Fertilization ............. .......... ........... 33
Pest Control - Environmental & Management Issues ...... 37
Principles of Pest Control -
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ................ 37
Resistant Varieties ............ ........ ......... 38
Biological Control ................... ........... 38
Cultural Control ............................. 38
Mechanical-Physical Control ..................... 39
Sanitation..................................... 39
PESTICIDES ............................... 00 * 0 0 9 40
How Pesticides Work....................40
Pesticide Terms ................................ 40
The Pesticide Label.............................. 41
Pesticides and the Environment ................... 0 0 0 45
How Pesticides Can Harm the Surrounding
Environment ................................. 45
Pesticide Handling........................... 0 * 0 * 046
Storage...................................... 46
Mixing....................................... 47
Cleaning...................................... 49
Worker Safety ................................. 49
Care of Clothing Worn During Pesticide Application ....... 51I
Maintenance of Established Sod..........52
Mowing...................................... 52
Pest Control .................................. 53
Fertilization ................................... 54
Irrigation ..................................... 55
Southern Turfgrasses for Sod Production..............056
How is Turfgrass Selection a BMP?.................... 56
The Species...............................00*00*000057
Bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.)............57
Zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.)................ 00....... 0. .58
Centipedegrass ................................ 60
St. Augustinegrass ............................... 61
Seashore Paspalum .............................. 62
Buffalograss..................63
Tall Fescue ...... 0$s*...... 00................63
Warm Season Turfgrass Cultivars.................. 00 00 065
Bermudagrass Cultivars........................... 65
Zoysiagrass Cultivars............................. 68
St.Augustinegrass Cultivars................... 0*.a. .70
Centipedegrass Cultivars.......................... 71
BEST MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES FOR
ALABAMA
SOD PRODUCTION
Wv SOD PR,'". '
Alabama sod production has
grown dramatically in the past 6C ,
years. In the 1940s and 1950s. ..
limited areas of sod productior '
"':  
""-
(less than 500 acres) were grown
primarily for use by golf cours,
construction companies. By 1978
an estimated 2,900 acres of soc
was in production,grown to meet
the increasing demand for turf for
home lawns and other urban
uses.The last extensive survey of
Alabama sod acreage was con-
ducted in 1988, when it was .
estimated that 15,000 acres were
in production. A 1995 Alabama
Agricultural Experiment Station -
(AAES) publication titled "Eco-
nomic Feasibility of Turfgrass-
Sod Production" (AAES Bulleti
.V11) i S Pr-oL&iti I
625) estimated that 25,000 acres were in production. Casual obser-
vation and conversations with sod growers indicate an estimated
33,000 acres in production in the year 2000.
Acres
25,000 -
20,000
15,000
10,000
5.000
0-
oOOD
1942 1962 1982 2002
Year
Estimated sod acreage in Alabama, 1942 - 2001.
This dramatic increase in sod production has developed due to
many factors, both agronomic and human.Agronomic factors include:
(I) failures or profit loss in conventional commodity crops, making
turf an attractive alternative; (2) development of new and high-quali-
ty turf cultivars; (3) the need to vegetatively propagate most high-
quality warm-season turfgrasses; and, (4) immediate environmental
6 Bicst Mm .mm cinr I'ritPict es for
AIhbaiiial I'd PIu101tC011
I
protection offered by sod (less sediment and water runoff than 
bare
or seeded soil). Human factors include: (I) increase in retirees mov-
ing South who expect high-quality lawns, (2) urban and industrial
development of Alabama, and (3) increase in the numbers 
of golf
courses and sports fields and commercial enterprises that require
high-quality turf.
In response to the increasing demand for high-quality sod 
the
number of full- and part-time sod producers has risen since 
1978
(when the first Alabama sod producer survey was completed). In
1978 there were 26 sod growers in Alabama, and most of these were
either part-time or grew the sod along with other agricultural crops.
By 1988 (when a second survey was completed) there were 79 grow-
ers, and a greater percentage of these were full-time producers. 
In
1999 a survey of county agents revealed that there was a total of 105
sod growers in Alabama, and the number of acres grown by many
long-time producers had increased.
One dilemma with increasing acres of sod production is urban
and agricultural competition for the level, sandy soil preferred 
for sod
production. Urban expansion needs the same resources as sod 
pro-
duction: level land, easy access to water, fewer rocks or stones 
in the
soil, and close location to metropolitan areas. Established 
Alabama
sod farms are more and more likely to find themselves located 
next
to new residential developments, a situation that often causes 
intense
scrutiny of the mowing, watering, and clipping disposal practices 
of
neighboring sod farms. Residents of suburban developments 
are
often unaware or uneducated of typical agricultural production prac-
tices, and may voice concerns about the impact of neighboring 
sod
farms on water quality.
Best Management Practices for 7
Alabama Sod Production I
Sod - A Natural Best Management Practice
Established sod is an excellent Best Management Practice for
protected environmental quality. Soils covered with plant residue or
growing plants are often less susceptible to erosion, as the plant
cover protects soil from the direct impact of raindrops. Established
turf filters sediment and nutrients from water runoff, and slows the
speed of water, further reducing erosion and sediment transport.
Adoption of Best Management Practices (BMPs) for sod pro-
duction can help ensure the long-term survival of Alabama sod pro-
duction, helping sod producers profit from their agricultural enter-
prise while protecting the surrounding environment. Examples of
BMPs include proper use and selection of fertilizers to minimize
leaching and runoff, proper rinsing and disposal of pesticide contain-
ers, installation of vegetative buffer strips along stream banks or
crossings, and recycling and reuse of the nutrients in clippings. The
objective of this Alabama Sod Producer Best Management Practices
manual is to provide an information source for Alabama sod produc-
ers, helping them become efficient and environmentally safe produc-
ers of sod for our growing economy.
The Value of Sod
Sod is considered a high-value production crop, with a high per-
acre value similar to vegetables or fruits. So, although the number of
acres in sod production is relatively low when compared to a com-
modity crop such as cotton or peanuts, the per-acre value of the crop
easily exceeds these agricultural commodity crops. Of the four major
warm-season turfgrasses commonly grown for sod in Alabama
(bermudagrass, St. Augustinegrass, centipedegrass, and zoysiagrass),
8 I Best Management Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
Average Wholesale and Retail 
Prices
Charged for Selected Turfgrasses,
Alabama, 200 1.
Wholesale Retail
Average price per square yard
Bermuda 1.05 1.15
Zoysia 2.37 2.47
Centipede 1.41 1.50
St.Augustine 1.93 2.20
Fescue 1.30 1.44
Source: Cain, J.J. and J.L.Adrian. 2002.Turgrass-sod
Production in Alabama: Economics and Marketing.
M.S.Thesis, Auburn University, Dept. of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology
Average wholesale and retail prices charged for 
selected turfgrass
species, Alabama, 2001.
the most profitable is bermudagrass. In 1995 
it was estimated that
regardless of seasonal price fluctuations bermudagrass 
was the most
profitable, with an average estimated price of 
$1.00 per square yard.
Since a typical sod yield is 4,000 to 4,300 square 
yards per acre the
value of a bermuda sod crop quickly becomes 
apparent. Although
centipedegrass and zoysiagrass have higher values 
(estimates of $1 .41
and $2.37 per square yard, respectively) they 
are typically harvested
once a year, as opposed to bermudagrass, which 
can be harvested
twice a year.
Bct Managcmcint Practices for
Alabama Sod Production I
Site Selection
It is not enough to find the natural resource base needed 
for sod
production - this resource base must 
also be located close to a
major market area and with quality roads 
that reach that market area.
Sandy, level soil that is close to a quality water 
source has far less
value as a sod farm if it can only 
be reached by traveling more than
20 miles of a rutted one-lane road. 
Typically, sod growers sell their
product within a 300-mile radius 
of their farm, as the perishable
nature of sod prevents longer shipping 
distances.
The most preferred soil types 
for sod production are 
sands or
sandy loam soils (up to 80% sand), 
although Alabama sod production
does occur on heavier soils, too.The 
site should be level, well drained,
and free of rocks and stumps. 
One consideration in Alabama is that
many suitable farm sites are old 
pasture land, so elimination of 
com-
mon bermudagrass from the 
site can be an expensive addition 
to the
production process.
Both water quantity and quality are 
needed for efficient sod pro-
duction. Every Alabama sod 
producer uses some type of 
irrigation,
including center pivot, sideroll, 
or solid set sprinkler systems.A 
rule-
of-thumb for water consumption 
needs should be a water supply
great enough to supply one inch 
of water per week to every acre 
of
sod on the farm. In times of drought 
or on very sandy soils water
needs can increase up to three 
inches of water per week for every
acre of sod on the farm.
The natural resources of land 
and water are critical, but the
human resources of labor are also 
very important. A sod farm
requires both full- and part-time 
labor, and both skilled and unskilled
0 I ct Manaemcnt Iractices for
I Alabama Sod I'oduction
labor are needed. Skilled labor could include a mechanic, accountant,
tractor/truck driver, and spray or irrigation technician. Unskilled labor
is needed to perform chores such as stacking cut sod or spot-spray-
ing fields to maintain grass purity. In 1988 the average number of
employees on an Alabama sod farm was 4.42 part-time and 7.0 full-
time, not including the owner of the farm. Small farms (less than 100
acres) used more part-time labor than large farms, as the only full-
time labor at small sod farms was likely to be the owner.
Soil Testing and Analysis
Proper soil testing is needed to ensure rapid sod growth with a
minimum of environmental impact. A soil test provides information
about fertilizer needs and levels of soil nutrients, and it provides fer-
tilizer recommendations so that wasteful amounts of fertilizer are
not applied.There are both private and state-run soil testing labora-
tories available to analyze collected soil samples, but it is important
to choose a reliable laboratory that will supply soil-test results in a
timely manner.
In Alabama, fertilizer recommendations are made for the nutri-
ents phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and calcium
(Ca).There is not a standard soil-test recommendation for nitrogen
(N). Because the forms of nitrogen that are plant-available are affect-
ed by soil microbes, and because changes can happen quickly, there is
no accurate, calibrated test for soil-test N in the southeastern U.S. In
the Southeast, N fertilizer recommendations are not based on soil-
test N. Instead, N fertilizer recommendations are made based on
crop need and response, and N recommendations will vary from
crop to crop.
Best Management Practices for I
Alabama Sod Production I
Soil samples in the Southeast are usually extracted with 
an acid-
based extract called the Mehlich extract.The type of extract varies
with region - in the western U.S. a different extractant 
is used than
in the Southeast, and in the Midwest a third extractant 
is used.This
is because years of testing has shown which extractant 
does the
best job of removing the pool of soil nutrients 
most related to plant
growth.Why does this matter to a sod grower? Use 
of the wrong
extractant could produce soil-test results that 
over- or under-esti-
mate fertilizer needs. The easiest way to prevent this 
is to simply
send soil-test samples to a laboratory in your 
state or region.
Alabama sod growers who send soil-test samples 
to a laboratory in
Nebraska, for example, may receive poorly calibrated 
soil-test rec-
ommendations.
A typical southeastern soil-test will provide the 
following basic
information: soil pH, soil P, soil K, soil Ca, and soil 
Mg.The information
is usually reported in pounds per acre (lbs./A), 
and soil-test P and K
may be reported as P
2
0
5 
and K
2
0.This has nothing to do with the
form of P and K in the soil, or the form of P and 
K needed by the
plant.The use of P
2
0
5 
and K
2
0 is an old nomenclature left from the
days when fertilizers were analyzed by burning 
them, and the amount
of P and K was reported in the oxide form. 
It is still the way P and K
content are reported on every bag of fertilizer, 
so soil-test reports
use the same vocabulary so it is easy to compare 
between numbers.
Phosphorus fertilizer should always be 
applied according to the
soil-test. Excess P in some Alabama soils has become 
a big environ-
mental issue because surface P can move with water 
runoff and sed-
iment to streams and lakes, decreasing water 
quality. Although sod
farms are not as prone to P accumulation and P 
loss via runoff as
12 Best Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
some other agricultural production systems it can be of concern if
large amounts of poultry litter or other waste material (such as tex-
tile processing sludge) are applied to sod farms. Because P is not
needed in the large amounts needed for N and K, application of
waste materials that tend to have uniform amounts of N, P, and K (for
example, fresh poultry litter is usually about a 3-2-2 product) can
result in P accumulation. Soil-testing can help monitor such accumu-
lation, and use of low-P fertilizers is needed when P accumulation
becomes an environmental threat.
Although it may not pose a threat to surrounding water quality,
excessive soil-test K, Ca, and Mg is not a cost-effective means of sod
production. In very sandy soils soil K may leach, and loss of K from
the rooting zone may require additional applications of K fertilizer.
Typically, calcium and magnesium are supplied via the application of
lime (CaCO
3
) or dolomitic (Ca-Mg C0
3
) lime, which is recom-
mended as soil-test pHs become acid. However, in some soils calci-
um and magnesium may be needed when the soil pH does not signal
a lime recommendation. Calcium and magnesium sources such as
gypsum (CaSO4), epsom salts (MgSO
4
) or K-Mag can be used to sup-
ply Ca or Mg without affecting the soil pH.
The format of soil-test reports will vary from lab to lab, and
reported information will also vary. Some information may be of use
to a sod grower, while other information is of little use. For example,
many soil-test labs report the "buffer pH" a number used to deter-
mine the lime recommendation for acid soils. It has no real value for
a sod producer - the soil pH and the lime recommendation (if there
is one) are the numbers of value to a sod grower. On the other hand,
some labs will report a "base saturation" which may be of some use
Best Management Practices for 13
Alabama Sod Production I
to a sod growerThis percentage tells how much of the soil's ability
to hold cations (K, Ca, Mg, and H) is occupied by the basic cations (K,
Mg, and Ca). In general, a high (greater than 70%) base saturation is
preferable because it indicates that there are sufficient levels of Ca,
Mg, and K available for plant uptake and use. Some labs may also
report the "cation exchange capacity" (CEC), which is a measure of
the soil's ability to retain all cations (Ca, Mg, K, H, NH
4
, and Al) in the
soiI.A high CEC (greater than 20) is usually found in soils with a high-
er clay content, while sandy soils may have a much lower CEC
(approximately 2). A low CEC indicates that fertilizers should be
applied more frequently to avoid losses via leaching through the soil.
An example Auburn University soil-test report.
14 1"nt N1ri[geirc tIP.rctic"'" 'or
AlabaIkma Sod ProducctI ol
Grid Soil Sampling
New developments in geographic information system (GIS)
technology have led many Alabama sod growers to use site-specific
maps of their sod farms. GIS is a system that uses satellites to map
fields, producing computer generated maps of each field on which
data can be collected.The maps can be used to trace the history of
each field, including pesticide application, fertilizer application, and
harvest scheduling. One way GIS is used is grid-sampling of sod fields,
where a soil sample is collected at one- or two-acre grid samplings
in each sod field.The resulting spatial variability in soil-test values is a
useful tool for varying fertilizer application across fields. This helps
pinpoint fertilizer application so that over- or under-application of
nutrients is lessened.
Land Preparation
Regardless of soil type or location, land prepared for sod pro-
duction must be level, free of rocks or stumps, and smooth. Subsoiling
is often required to break up subsurface compaction layers, especial-
ly if the site is a new sod site that had been previously used for cot-
ton production. Some sod growers now employ laser leveling devices
to ensure a completely smooth and level planting bed.
Possibly the most difficult part of site preparation is the removal
of pernicious weeds, especially the sedges and common bermuda-
grass. The most effective treatment is fumigation with methyl bro-
mide, but this is both expensive and time consuming. Methyl bromide
fumigation can cost about $1,800-2,000 per acre. Because the fumi-
gant must be applied under a plastic layer, application is often per-
formed by a custom applicator. Another nonselective weed control
Best Management Practices for
Alabama Sod Production
method is multiple applications of glyphosphate (Roundup) to con-
trol common bermudagrass.While far less effective than methyl bro-
mide, such applications may be more useful where only spot spraying
is needed.
An emerging problem in sod fields are nematodes - micro-
scopic roundworms that live either in the soil or within the roots of
the turfgrasses. Damage caused by nematodes is often mistaken for
insect damage, drought, or some other soil problem that inhibits
rooting. Typically, the turf is thin and yellowed. Nematode damage
occurs in irregularly shaped, patchy areas. The sod often lacks
strength, and falls apart at harvest.The only way to pinpoint a soil
nematode problem is to take a soil sample and send it to a qualified
laboratory for analysis.The laboratory can determine the species and
population of nematodes in the soil, and make recommendations
about when and how control should be performed. Unfortunately,
there are very few nematicides labeled for use on sod farms, and con-
trol can be very difficult. Thus, it is wise to also have a nematode
Removal of plastic covering after methyl bromide fumigation.
4-.,
16 1 B [ Nli 
ir ciicn I 
i' r it ici 
, or
Alabaimi Sod iFrodLlt1oil
count performed on soil samples prior to planting a new sod field.
In general, preemergence herbicides are rarely used in sod pro-
duction, and almost never in the establishment year. Many preemer-
gent materials affect root and shoot growth of grasses, and newly
sprigged turf will not grow and peg down if preemergence herbicides
are in the soil. In fact, sod that will not hold together at harvest is
sometimes the result of inappropriate or untimely application of pre-
emergent herbicides.
A general order of land preparation would be: (I) site prepara-
tion (removing stumps and rocks, smoothing, and leveling); (2) pri-
mary tillage, including subsoiling; (3) fertilize and lime according to soil
test; (4) secondary tillage to incorporate lime and fertilizer and pre-
pare planting bed; and (5) fumigate if desired, or apply nonselective
herbicides.
Establishment
Establishing Alabama sod fields almost always requires vegeta-
tive material. Currently, the only sod crops established by seeding in
Alabama are tall fescue (200-250 pounds per acre), centipedegrass
(10 pounds per acre) and common bermudagrass, although some
seeded zoysiagrasses are in development and in use in Georgia.
Common bermudagrass is used less and less, and recently estab-
lished bermudagrass sod fields are almost always a hybrid type.
Additionally, seeded grasses (especially tall fescue) are often seeded
with a lightweight plastic netting, which aids in maintaining sod
strength and shortening time to harvest.
A typical planting method for warm-season turfgrasses is sprig-
ging. Sprigs are the horizontal shoot material, either stolons (above-
ground) or rhizomes (belowground). If just stolons are used for
Best Management Practices for17
Alabama Sod Production I
planting material the term "stolonizing" is used to describe the plant-
ing process. Because sprigs are shoots, they contain nodes from
which roots and leaves develop, so that any well-watered sprig will
root and spread laterally across the ground. Sprigs are typically spread
across the prepared planting bed, incorporated via disking, and
watered lightly and frequently for establishment. Sprigs may also be
incorporated by "row-planting" where the sprigs are cut into the
planting bed via a slit cut into the soil. Automatic sprig plant equip-
ment is also available.
Turfgrasses that are slower growing, such as zoysiagrass, are
often established by plugging. Plugs are small pieces of sod, two to
four square inches in size that are planted on six- to 12-inch centers.
Unlike sprigging or stolonizing, plugging transfers a small amount of
soil in the planting process. Sprigging, stolonizing, and plugging can be
performed either by the sod grower or by a custom applicator. Many
Turfgrass sprigger for planting bermudagrass sprigs.
Be1 t MIanagcmcnt Practiccs for
Alabama Sod Production
t
tll 
"
ARM
smaller Alabama sod farms hire a custom sprigger to install new sod
fields, avoiding the cost of specialized planting equipment.
Generally, one bushel of sprigs or sod is obtained from one
square yard of sod.A bushel is also equal to 0.44 cubic feet. However,
the definition of a "bushel" may vary from region to region (the
"Texas" bushel is about three times larger than the'Georgia' bushel),
so care should be used when purchasing sprigs - make sure all par-
ties agree on the definition of a bushel.
Hybrid bermudagrass should be row- or broadcast-sprigged at
250 to 600 bushels per acre. The rate will vary with sprig quality,
water availability, and desired time to complete grow-in. If row-plant-
ed, centipedegrass and St. Augustinegrass should be planted at 100
bushels per acre. If the centipedegrass and St. Augustinegrass are
broadcast-planted, use a higher rate of 200 bushels per acre. Plugged
zoysiagrass and centipedegrass should be planted on six- to eight-
inch centers using sod blocks that are two to four inches in diame-
ter. This is equal to about 300 to 450 square yards per acre. St.
Augustinegrass plugs can be planted at a slightly wider 12- to 18- inch
spacing.
Reestablishment
Once sod fields are established they are harvested repeatedly
for many years.Two basic methods are used to reestablish a field of
harvested sod: clean-cut and ribbon-cut. Ribbon-cut sod is harvested
so that a one- to two-inch strip of sod is left in place in the sod field,
with a strip left between each strip of harvested sod.The ribbons are
then disked or cultivated to cut them back into the soil, the surface
is rolled and the field is left to regrow for the next harvest. Typical
Best Management 
Practices for 19
Alabama Sod Production I
yield from a ribbon-cut (with two-inch ribbons) sod field is 4,000
square yards per acre. Because St.Augustinegrass and centipedegrass
do not have rhizomes they are much more likely to be reestablished
from ribbon-cut, and not clean-cut sod. Centipedegrass fields may
also be overseeded with additional seed to help speed the regrowth
process.
Clean-cut fields are completely harvested, and no turf is left at
the surface. Regrowth from these fields is from rhizomes (under-
ground shoots) of bermudagrass or zoysiagrass. If centipedegrass is
clean-cut it is likely the field will be reseeded, too.Typical yield from
a clean-cut sod field is about 4,300 square yards per acre.
The type of harvest method may also vary with the time of year.
Bermudagrass fields that are spring harvested may be clean-cut, as the
fields are entering their period of most rapid growth and recovery.
Fields harvested in late summer may be ribbon-cut, leaving more turf
for regrowth and to help avoid winter injury.The newer trend of large
roll sod (30 to 48 inches wide and 100 feet long) may also cause
more sod fields to be clean-cut rather than ribbon cut.
Harvested sod field with ribbons left to help reestablish new crop.
'X
() 1 ';( "t 
III( I'[,]i 11I 
to]
Aljhania Sod Prodution
FNVIRnNMFNTAI PRnTFrTmInm nN Snn FoPM
Conservation Buffers
Buffers are strips or areas of land in permanent vegetation.These
areas are not used to produce sod, and instead serve as filter strips
to intercept runoff, filtering pollutants such as sediment, nutrients or
pesticides. Research has shown that buffers can remove up to 50% 
of
nutrients and pesticides and 75% of sediment.They can 
help stabilize
a stream bank, provide places for wildlife, reduce noise 
and dust, and
improve the appearance of the sod farm.
Filter strips are strips of grass used to trap field sediment 
and
pesticides. On a sod farm, a field strip might be as simple 
as 50-foot
wide strip of sod that is left unharvested and not mowed. 
Placed next
to sensitive areas such as streambanks, filter strips work 
well in a sod
production system.
Riparian buffer areas are lands directly adjacent to 
water bodies
such as streams, lakes, and wetlands. A riparian buffer 
system can eas-
ily be installed to protect such sensitive areas. Unlike 
a grass filter
strip, the system consists of a mixture of trees, shrubs, 
and grasses, all
suited to grow in their particular environment.A 
riparian buffer sys-
tem intercepts runoff, which removes nutrients, 
sediment, pesticides,
and organic matter before they enter the water area. 
The area can
also help reduce flood velocity, stabilize stream 
banks, and improve
aquatic habitat.An added benefit of such an area is that 
it produces
excellent wildlife habitat.
A successful riparian buffer zone on an Alabama sod 
farm will
likely have a 15-foot swath of native trees, shrubs, or grasses 
planted
immediately next to the stream to be protected.These species, 
which
Best Managcmcnt 
I'racticc 
cfi 21
Alabama od Prod LIt oi
An example BMP of a riparian zone with mixed should be adapted
grass and trees next to a sensitive water ar'ia
o the wet envi-
onment, help sta-
)ilize the stream
ank and control
ooding. Any
Decies of tree,
irub, or grass
dapted to
Ilabama stream-
)ank conditions
will work in a
buffer zone.
After the 15-
Sfoot swath imme-
diately next to the
stream, the next
80 feet should be a protected zone that can be actively managed.
Active management could include some mowing to keep the area
neat, or selected removal of trees to enhance appearance. On an
Alabama sod farm this protected zone could be sod that is mowed
but does not receive fertilizer or pesticide. If the sod grower has
alternative crops, the zone could be used for hay production or some
other enterprise that does not expose bare soil.
No-Spray Zones
No-spray zones are swaths of sod or other vegetation that do
not receive any applications of pesticides or fertilizer nutrients.
22 B[ Mawl;gcmciint I',iwcticc for
Alaharo, Sod ProdLIdtit1
A no-spray zone surrounding the edge of a sod field.
Serving as a filter strip, a no-spray zone helps prevent movement of
nutrients and pesticides into surrounding water. A no-spray zone
should be at least 50 feet wide, and can easily be marked for employ-
ees by the use of colored turf paint.
Clipping Management and Composting
A 1991 survey of Alabama sod growers revealed that 78% of sod
producers removed their clippings regularly. Every grower removed
their clippings when growth was excessive. Disposal of clippings was
always a problem: some burned the clippings, others used landfill pits,
and most used on-site above ground dumping.
Decomposing clippings can create environmental problems for a
sod grower. First, piled clippings can emit an undesirable odor as they
rot. Second, the clippings themselves can be transported into steams
or lakes, negatively affecting water quality. Third, runoff or leachate
Best Management Prractices for 23
Alabama Sod ProductionI
Improperly dumped clippings at the edge of a sod 
from decompos-
field.
ing clippings can
carry nutrients
from the clip-
pings to water,
harming water
quality.
Some simple
adjustments in
clipping disposal
can help limit
the environmen-
tal impact of the
clippings. If the
, clippings 
are
, , being dumped
S-bove ground do
not dump the
clippings near streams, ponds, or lakes. Do not dump the clippings on
excessively sloped ground (greater than 5%) and avoid stacking them
near houses, buildings, or places where people congregate.
An advanced step to managing the clippings is to compost them.
Composting turns solid waste into a useful end product by biologi-
cally decomposing the wastes.The compost can be returned to sod
fields as an organic amendment or made available to homeowners or
other clientele as an organic amendment for gardens or potting
media.
24 1 I ,c 
t Managom 
n't Pra ctice i 
o
I Alabaiiia Sod Production
(omposting
A low-technology method for composting 
clippings is to com-
bine the clippings with leaves 
or shredded brush. If the sod 
grower
does not have a large supply of leaves 
or shredded brush a nearby
town or municipality might be willing 
to supply yard waste trash,
but it will need to be ground. Grass 
clippings cannot be composted
by themselves, as they 
pack easily, and limit air 
flow to the pile. Mix
the clippings with leaves, wood chips, 
yard waste, or sawdust (add
sawdust only up to 10% of the 
total pile volume).
The "windrow" composting method 
uses a mix of three parts
leaves or brush (or something high 
in carbon) to one part clippings
(high in nitrogen), and the mix 
is placed in piles that are six 
feet high
and 12 to 14 feet wide.Water 
is added to maintain moisture 
at 50%
and the pile is allowed to stand 
for one week.Temperatures inside
the pile should reach 140 to 
160 degrees F within the 
first week of
composting. Use a front 
end loader or other turning 
device to
turn the windrow every three 
to four months, with a completion
time for the compost of nine 
to 1 2 months.The compost is finished
if the windrows do not reheat 
after turning and a sample sealed 
in
a plastic bag for 48
hours does not smell
offensive when opened.
If composting, the
site should have a
slight slope (1%), but
not more than 5%.
Position the windrows
so that they are per-
An example of a low-input pile for com-
posting clippings. Turning the compost
occasionally will help speed the compost-
ing process.
I 7
. .,
4" ~j
I r,~ I' ~ 25
Al b'iva ' od P rod uc t ion I
pendicular to the slope of the site. Do not locate the composting
area near wetlands or within one-quarter mile of any water source.
Divert surface water around the composting site to prevent erosion
and sedimentation.
If the composted clippings were obtained from a sod field that
has had herbicides applied, use caution if applying the compost to gar-
dens or shrub beds. Studies have shown that low levels of some her-
bicides (2,4-D, pendimethalin, clopyralid) can be detected in well-
decomposed yard waste mixtures. Usually, the level of residual herbi-
cide is not enough to pose a risk in the garden. However, in one case,
turfgrass clippings in 10-week-old compost contained enough clopy-
ralid to cause abnormal growth in some plant species.
Other composting systems may include bin-type structures
made from woven wire fencing. Typically four to five feet in diameter
and four to five feet high, the bins are simply filled with the materials
for composting, and water is added.Another type of bin may consist
of three chambers, each four to five feet high, three to five feet deep,
and three to five feet wide.The front of each bin consists of remov-
able boards so that the compost can be easily removed and added.
The use of three bins allows for three batches of compost, each in
different stages of decomposition.
There are fine references on composting available on the
Internet.
Streambank Stabilization
Each time a stream is crossed, the potential to pollute that
stream exists. Continued use of the same stream crossing will erode
sediment from the bank and harm vegetation growing on the bank.
26 Best 
Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
However, if stream crossings 
must be used there are some 
methods
for stabilization.
First, always cross the streambank at 
a right angle (90 degrees)
to a straight section of the 
stream. Although the crossing 
will natu-
rally slope into the stream, try 
to find a section to cross with 
a grade
of 3% or less.To prevent rutting or erosion 
of the entry and exit, use
rock to protect the approaches. Make 
sure the stream crossing pro-
vides a way for normal passage 
of aquatic animals and water.
To stabilize eroding banks anchor 
logs or brush against the bank
to redirect and slow the stream 
current. Once the stream current 
is
slowed the area should fill with 
sediment, and native vegetation 
will
begin to grow, providing additional 
stabilization. Combine this 
stream-
bank stabilization with riparian and filter 
strip buffer zones, using
wider filler strips in areas with 
steep slope.
An example of effective use of 
a stream used as a source of irrigation
water for a sod farm. The streambank 
quality has been maintained,
and stream flow has not bPen 
blocked.
- . , i .I S1" I I I.l IIII il d d41.
127
An excellent Alabama resource for information about Best
Management Practices for streams is Alabama Cooperative Extension
System publication ANR-91 I "Streams: A National Heritage Worth
Preserving." This publication is available on the Web at
http://www.aces.edu/department/extcomm/publications/anr/ANR-
91 lanr9 II main.html.
For More Information
Information about buffer strips, streambank stabilization and many
other techniques for maintaining soil and water quality may be found
at your local county NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation
Service) office. In some cases there are programs to help develop
such management practices on farms, and the NRCS has staff that can
come and assist you with your planning. Look in your phone book for
the county office (usually called something like "County Name"
NRCS or just "Natural Resources Conservation Service").
Information can also be found on the NRCS Website at
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/.
Irrigation
Typical Alabama farm irrigation is from a stream, creek, or pond.
Some sod growers may irrigate from a well, if a well is practical in
their area. Use of a well, surface water, or a combination of the two
will vary with local conditions and should be evaluated on a case-by-
case basis.Whatever the water source, Best Management Practices to
maintain water quality should be followed.
Keys to maintaining irrigation water quality include: I) reduce
sediment entering the surface water from which you pump by use of
28 Best Management 
Practices for
Alabama Sod Production
A center pivot irrigation sprinkler with dropped spray nozzles.
Dropping the nozzles closer to the turf surface will help lower evapo-
ration losses and deliver more water directly to the turf.
buffer and filter strips, 2) minimize loss of water in the distribution of
water from the source to the farm, 3) prevent aquifer contamination
at the wellhead, 4) maintain your irrigation system for optimum per-
formance, 5) manage your production program to minimize leaching
and/or runoff of nutrients or clippings, and, 6) maintain streambank
quality and stream integrity so that aquatic animal and water move-
ment is not affected.
Minimizing water loss from the source to the farm
In some cases an open ditch may be used to transport water to
the irrigation pump. If these ditches are earthen, they will lose 
water
as it seeps through the ditch, and via evaporation from the water sur-
face. Lining the ditches with concrete, swelling clay, or a membrane
lining can help prevent seepage and loss of water. Converting the
ditches to pipe will eliminate both seepage and evaporation 
loss.
Monitor all pipes for leaks, and fix as necessary.
Best ManavgrLcnt Prac(ticcs Io 29
Alabama Scd Production
Maintain your irrigation system for optimum performance
Many irrigation systems suffer from poor distribution 
of water,
resulting in some areas of the field that are 
under-watered and oth-
ers that are over-watered. Check to be sure that the sprinkler
heads have the correct combination of spacing, 
operating pressure,
and nozzle type to ensure proper overlap. 
Check for worn or
plugged nozzles.
If possible, operate in low wind, and avoid 
mid-day irrigation,
when evaporative loss is greatest. However, this 
is often difficult to do
in sod production, when irrigation often runs 
around the clock. If
using center pivot sprinkler irrigation, consider 
using a drop nozzle to
apply water closer to the turf surface, lessening 
evaporative loss.
Prevent aquifer contamination at the 
wellhead
Any activity that could introduce nutrients 
or pesticides into a
wellhead should be avoided. Do not store, load, or mix chemicals
near the wellhead. Do not fertilize the area around the wellhead. Do
not store clippings near the wellhead.Wells 
should have a backflow
preventer installed, stopping back siphonage/flow 
of chemicals or
nutrients that might be applied during 
fertigation.
For More Information
A complete discussion of irrigation management 
issues can be
found at the Alabama Cooperative Extension 
System Website: The
page contains many documents abut irrigation 
scheduling, irrigation
systems, and the relative costs of each.
30 I Best Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
Water Quality
It is difficult to conduct complete water quality testing for pes-
ticides, nutrients and other components of water quality. Pesticide
testing, especially, is expensive, and the tests require sophisticated
equipment. If you are not sure which pesticide is present the cost
gets even higher, as "scans" for many chemicals must be performed.
However, there are several indicators of water quality that can
be easily measured by the sod grower, or cheaply measured by local
laboratories.Among these are temperature, pH, turbidity, dissolved
oxygen, total alkalinity, and total hardness. Monthly collection of this
data is fairly easy to do, and collection of such 
data over the long
term may alert a farmer that changes in water quality have
occurred. In Alabama, the Alabama Water Watch (Dept. of Fisheries
and Allied Aquacultures, Swingle Hall,Auburn University, AL 36849;
334-844-4786) can assist with the collection of such data.
Temperature
Water temperature will follow the same pattern as air tem-
perature, but will usually lag behind a few degrees. Changes in this
pattern may indicate that flow into the stream has been altered in
some way.
A pH test measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
water.The greater the concentration of hydrogen ions, the more acid
the water.A pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acid, and above is alkaline.
Water pH from 6 to 9 is usually suitable for most organisms.A pH
below 5 or above 10 will harm almost all organisms.
Best Management Practices for 31
Alabama Sod Production I
Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of the water, created by suspended
particles. Cloudy, turbid water indicate that soil 
erosion is occur-
ring, or there may be input of nutrients 
from runoff.Turbid irriga-
tion water is a concern to sod farmers, 
as the suspended sediment
may plug or wear irrigation nozzles.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen concentrations (DO) in 
streams may range
from 0 to 15 ppm, with a DO between 5 to 
10 ppm sufficient to
support a healthy stream. If a stream has organic 
(such as from an
algal bloom, possibly caused by excess 
P fertilizer) or nutrient pol-
lution, the DO reading may be low, indicating 
aquatic organisms may
have difficulty surviving in the stream.
Eutrophication of surface water sources can occur 
when excess phos-
phorus moves to water, triggering algae growth.
_) ht " NI in , I
Total alkalinity/Total Hardness
Alkalinity is a measure of the carbonate and bicarbonate in the
water, and hardness is a measure of the Ca and Mg in the water.
Alkalinity values range from 10 ppm or less in the Coastal Plain to
200 ppm in regions with limestone outcroppings. Hardness may range
from 0-20 (soft water) to > 180 ppm (hard water). In unpolluted
waters in Alabama, alkalinity and hardness values are usually similar.
For More Information
"Streams: A National Heritage Worth Preserving" Alabama
Cooperative Extension System Publication ANR-91 I.
Alabama Water Watch. Dept. of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, 203
Swingle Hall,Auburn University,AL 36849-5627, 334-844-4786
Fertilization
It is important to be aware of the environmental impact over-fer-
tilization can have on water that may be surrounding the sod farm.
Understanding the biological and physical pathways that control soil
nutrients can help sod growers plan their fertilization programs, pro-
ducing quality sod with a minimum environmental impact.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the primary fertilizer nutrient that is controlled by
a biological cycle for plant availability. Only two forms of nitrogen
are available for plant uptake and use: nitrate nitrogen (NO3") and
ammonium nitrogen (NH
4
+).That is why soluble N sources such
as ammonium nitrate (NH
4
NO
3
) are rapidly available for plant
growth - the forms do not need to be converted into plant avail-
able nitrogen.
Best Management Practices for
Alabama Sod Production I
Other forms of nitrogen, such as organic N in poultry litter or
clippings, must be converted by microbial decay into nitrate and
ammonium.The term for this is "mineralization" where organic N is
converted by microbes into ammonium, and then by other microbes
into nitrate.This is why organic N sources are often thought of as
slow-release sources. In very hot weather this conversion may occur
rapidly, but in very cold weather it may not occur for some time (a
year or more).This means that the timing of N availability from some
organic sources is less predictable.
Nitrogen can be lost from the plant root zone through several
pathways. First, ammonium may be converted to ammonia, a gas that
then volatilizes into the air.Ammonia volatilization can be a problem
when urea is surface-applied and not watered in.Although it is cur-
rently not a large environmental issue in the United States, several
European nations are imposing air-quality standards for ammonia
gas.This is largely due to emissions from poultry producing houses,
but losses from agricultural fields may also become an issue.
If ammonium is converted to nitrate, and if this nitrate is moved
out of the root zone, it may leach into groundwater supplies. Nitrate
contamination of water supplies is a concern, and water that con-
tains greater than 10 parts per million (ppm or 10 ug/ml NO
3
-N) is
considered a health hazard for pregnant women, nursing babies, and
elderly people with circulatory problems. Nitrate leaching is of par-
ticular concern in sandy soils that may have had over application of
soluble fertilizer. Steps to avoiding nitrate leaching include frequent,
small applications of N fertilizer and use of slow-release sources.
Care should also be taken to avoid over-irrigation.
Denitrification of N occurs when nitrate is converted by
34 Best Management Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
microbes into the plant-unavailable forms of NO, 
N
2
0, and NO
2
.
These forms are all gases, so N is lost as gas to the environment.As
with ammonia volatilization concerns are being expressed about the
amount of gaseous N released to the environment through denitri-
fication, and studies are currently underway to quantify the amount
of N lost from agricultural fields via denitrification.
Another N conversion that creates plant unavailable N is immo-
bilization, where nitrate is converted back into organic N by
microbes. Immobilization occurs when materials that have a high
carbon content are added to soil. In a rough sense, immobilization
can be viewed as the reverse of mineralization,where immobilization
takes available N and converts it into a plant unavailable organic
form, while mineralization releases available N from organic nitro-
gen.
In summary, the most immediate environmental concern in N
fertilization of sod fields is the prevention of nitrate loss to ground-
water via leaching. Because soluble N is prone to downward move-
ment and does not tend to accumulate on the soil surface, it is less
of a concern for movement via runoff, although such losses may
occur in heavy rainfall or if bare soil is present. Keys to minimizing
nitrate leaching includes the use of slow-release N, split applications
of soluble N, and avoiding over-irrigation.
Phosphorus
Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus (P) is not largely controlled by bio-
logical processes.The vast majority of soil phosphorus (90%) is held
in plant unavailable forms as calcium phosphates, iron phosphates, and
aluminum phosphates. Added fertilizer phosphorus is rapidly con-
Best Management Practices for 35
Alabama Sod Production I
verted to unavailable forms, and only becomes slowly available
through weathering and exchange over time.The percentage of P in
the soil solution that is plant available at any time is less than I% of
total P in the soil.
Phosphorus becomes an environmental hazard when it accumu-
lates at the soil surface,which can happen when excessive P is applied
or when P is consistently applied to the surface without incorporat-
ing tillage, such as in pastures or sod farms. Surface accumulated P is
susceptible to movement in runoff water, as it moves attached to clay
particles eroded by moving water. Phosphorus in surface runoff can
end up in streams and lakes, where elevated levels of P can lead to
decreases in water quality as algal blooms and fish kills occur.
Methods to reduce the risk of P contamination of surface water
include soil testing to monitor soil-test P levels and fertilization only
to meet soil-test P recommendations. This is of particular concern
when waste materials are applied to sod farms, as materials such as
poultry litter applied to supply N may over-supply P. Have the mate-
rials analyzed at a local testing laboratory to determine the correct
analysis.
36 1 Best Management 
Practices for
Alabama Sod Production
Principles of Pest Control - Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
It is easy to think of IPM as only a tool for managing insects.
Actually, IPM is a whole-system tool for managing 
the crop, and
involves many steps for keeping pests of all 
kinds at a manageable
level. Use of pesticides should be considered 
the last step in any IPM
management program.
The first step in any pest control is to identify 
the pest.Although
this seems simple, knowing exactly which weed, 
insect, or disease has
cropped up on the sod farm is the key towards selecting 
the proper
control procedure.Weeds are a particular problem 
in many Alabama
sod farms. As new problem weeds emerge correct 
identification is
important. County agents or state specialists can help identify 
weeds,
and some states now have Web-based weed identification 
programs
that assist growers through the weed identification process.
Once the pest has been identified, the available control methods
must be identified. An emerging problem in sod production is that
available control methods for some of our most serious 
pests have
become limited. For example, nematode control 
options for sod farms
are not plentiful, even though nematodes pose a serious 
threat to many
southern Alabama sod farms. Once control methods have 
been identi-
fied, the benefits and risks of each method(s) should be evaluated.
Choose the control method that causes 
the least harm to the
environment, and is the most effective. Use the method 
only when
the pest causes more damage than is reasonable 
to accept.
Determining this threshold requires frequent 
examination of sod
fields, scouting for emerging weeds, insects, or disease 
problems that
will lower the value of the crop.
Bct Mana 
gement Practices 
for 37
Alabhuma Sod Iroduction
Integrated Past Management Methods Other Than Pesticides
Resistant Varieties
In southern turfgrass production there are several cultivars
resistant to various turfgrass pests.The first is chinch bug resist-
ance, found in several commonly grown St.Augustinegrasses. Most
of the St.Augustinegrasses coming from Florida breeding programs
('Floratam' and 'Floratine') are resistant to chinch bugs, while
'Raleigh' is not. Some St. Augustinegrasses are resistant to St.
Augustinegrass decline (SAD), a viral disease of St. Augustinegrass.
Most other warm-season turfgrasses (bermuda, zoysia, and cen-
tipede) grown in Alabama are not resistant to any other disease,
insect, or nematode.
Of the cool-season grasses, many tall fescue varieties have spe-
cific resistance to a variety of turf diseases. Using data collected from
the National Turfgrass Evaluation Program (NTEP), a sod grower can
select varieties that have demonstrated resistance to a variety of dis-
eases.The Web address for NTEP is: http://www.ntep.org/.
Biological Control
Most biological control options for sod production are still in
experimental stages, but their use for the control of various insects
or nematodes is coming. Current examples of research in the area
of biological control is the release of a predatory wasp for fire ant
control, or use of predatory nematodes for destructive nematode
control.A nematode-trapping fungi for control of nematodes is also
under study.A list of EPA registered biopesticides can be found at
the URL: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides/.
38 1 Best 
Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
Cultural Control
Examples of cultural control of pests are less common in sod
production. Cultural control can include crop rotation, change of
planting pattern, or use of different tillage practices. Since sod pro-
duction is a uniform production system that does not provide much
flexibility in terms of tillage or planting it is difficult to use cultural
controls for pest control.
Mechanical-Physical Control
Mechanical or physical control in sod production is similar to
biological control - there are many experimental methods on the
horizon, but nothing is in everyday use. Examples of mechanical/phys-
ical control include fire to control weeds, loud noise to repel birds,
microwaving or solarization to sterilize the soil, or sticky traps to
catch insects.
Sanitation
Sanitation is one pest control method that is quite helpful on
Alabama sod farms. Proper cleaning of mowers when moving from
field to field can help eliminate contamination from invasive grasses
or weeds. When mowers are used to maintain multiple species of
grass they must be inspected regularly to make sure one grass species
is not inadvertently transferred to another.Another sanitation tool is
to maintain clean, bare areas around sod fields, preventing encroach-
ment of weeds or other grass species into the edge of the sod field.
Best Management Practices for139
Alabama Sod Production
How PFT!WIEN WORK
Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy, prevent, or manage
pests. Pesticides may also attract or repel pests, or regulate plant
growth. Pesticides are made from many different compounds, and
may be inorganic (from minerals such as arsenic, lead, or zinc), syn-
thetic organic (such as 2,4-D or atrazine), living micro-organisms
(such as the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis), derived from microor-
ganisms (such as Strobilurin fungicides and antibiotics), or plant-
derived organics (such as pyrethrins and strychnine).
Pesticide Terms
Contact - a pesticide that kills by touching or contacting the pest, not
taken into the vascular system of the plant.
Systemic - a pesticide taken into the vascular system of the plant and
translocated throughout plant to kill.
Fumigant - a gas that kills.
Selective - a pesticide that is more toxic to some plants or groups of
plants than others; only kills selected pests.
Nonselective - a pesticide that is toxic to most pests.
Preemergence - a herbicide applied before the weed emerges. Kills
only emerging weeds.
Post emergence - a herbicide that is applied after the weed has
emerged. Best control is usually obtained while the weed is small and
actively growing.
40 Best 
Management 
Practices for
Alabama Sod Production
r L > i1 i %.. i Loo"' L >
The Pesticide Label
The pesticide label describes the risks, benefits, and proper use
of that pesticide. Federal regulations require that certain information
appear in certain locations on every pesticide label.All labels should
contain the following information:
Brand Name - The most identifiable name for the product. Brand
names are usually capitalized.An example is Roundup.
Chemical Name - The scientific name for an active ingredient. An
example is 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- I, I-dimethylurea.
Common Name -A name commonly used and accepted by the EPA
to identify the active ingredient in the pesticide.These names are usu-
ally not capitalized.An example is glyphosphate.
Formulation -The form in which the pesticide is sold to be handled.
The formulation is how the pesticide was prepared so that it can be
applied and spread evenly over an area. Common formulations
include:
Dust (D) - a finely ground, ready-to-use powder.
Granule (G) - ready-to-use dry mixture of active ingredient and a dry
carrier.
Wettable powder (WP) - A dry preparation that is mixed with water
for application. Form a suspension in the spray tank and must be agi-
tated to dissolve.
Water dispersible granule (WDG) or dry flowable (DF) - Disperses
in water to form a suspension. Less dust than with wettable powders.
Emulsifiable concentrates (E or EC) -This liquid formulation is solu-
ble in oil and forms an emulsion in water.
Flowable (F or L) -Very finely ground material suspended in a liquid.
This liquid is mixed with water for application.
Best Management Practices for 41
Alabama Sod Production I
Ingredient Statement - Lists the total amount of active ingredient as
a percentage by weight or pounds per gallon of formulation.Also lists
inactive ingredients such as fillers.
Net Contents - States the amount of formulation in that package
Name and Address of Manufacturer - Name and address of the com-
pany that made the product.
Registration and Establishment Numbers -These numbers are differ-
ent for every product. The registration number is usually found on
the front panel of the label and shows that the product has been reg-
istered with the EPA. The establishment number tells what factory
made the chemical, and will be found somewhere on the container.
Signal Words and Symbol -These are provided to give an idea of the
relative toxicity of a product.The words are set by law, and the cor-
rect one must be used on every label:
DANGER - Highly toxic, a taste to a teaspoonful will kill a
150-pound person.Accompanied by the picture of a skull
and crossbones and the word "Poison" written in red.
WARNING - Moderately toxic, a teaspoon to a table-
spoonful will kill a 150-pound person.
CAUTION - Low toxicity, an ounce to more than a pint will
kill a 150-pound person.
Precautionary Statements - Includes hazards to humans or domestic
animals. Will tell you of special protective steps, such as protective
equipment necessary to take when using the pesticide.
Environmental Hazards - Contains specific environmental cautions,
such as toxicity to bees, wildlife, or fish.
Statement of Practical Treatment - Includes first aid measures for all
types of exposures, and includes information for the physician for
how poisoning should be treated.
42 I Best Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
Statement of Use Classification - The EPA classifies pesticides for
either General or Restricted use.
Restricted Use: Could cause some human injury or environmental
damage even when used as directed on the label. Restricted use pes-
ticides can only be sold to and used by certified applicators or per-
sons under their direct supervision.
General Use: Generally will not cause unreasonable adverse effects
on the environment when used in commonly recognized practices in
accordance with the label.These pesticides are normally available to
the public.
Directions for Use - Lists pests or pest controlled, crop or site
approved for use, rate of application, approved application equipment
and techniques, and when the pesticide should be applied.
Misuse Statement -A reminder that it is against Federal law to use a
product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling.This includes things
such as exceeding the rate specified on the label, treating a crop not
listed, and changing the method or time of application from that
shown on the label.
Re-Entry Statement - If required for the product, tells how much time
must pass before the treated area is safe for re-entry without pro-
tective clothing.
Waiting Period - If required by the product, this section tells how
much time must pass between pesticide applications, harvest of the
crop, or planting.
Storage and Disposal Directions -Tells how to store the product and
dispose of empty containers.
Best Management Practices for 43
Alabama Sod Production I
An example generalized pesticide label.
(;) ~ USE i
-1 ------
44 1 ic [ Mjinaiclcnt I'raclitcc for
I A.hhIia Sod I'Iod(tilorl
N
How Pesticides Can Harm the Surrounding Environment
Direct Kill of Nontarget Organisms - Drift from sprayed sod
fields can injure nearby plants and animals, while runoff can carry
harmful residue to streams, lakes, or ponds. Drift increases when: (I)
distance from ground to nozzle increases, (2) droplet or particle size
decreases, and (3) wind speed increases. Avoid spray drift by: (I)
spraying at low pressure, (2) using spray tips with narrow discharge
angles, (3) using the largest practical nozzle openings, and (4) spray-
ing during the calmer parts of day (often early morning or late after-
noon). Establish no-spray buffer zones around bodies of water or
stream banks. Spray when wind velocity is low to minimize drift and
use a shielded boom.
Persistence and Accumulation - Persistent pesticides break down
slowly, and may stay in the environment for a long time before break-
ing down.While this is useful for long-term control of weeds it may
begin to accumulate in the environment. Sometimes a loss of sod
strength (will not knit together at harvest) may be due to residual
herbicides in the soil, especially if a preemergence herbicide was
applied too close to harvest time.A close examination of herbicide
selection and persistence of the material may help determine if sod
strength is affected by a particular pesticide.
Water and Pesticides - Pesticide in runoff water can damage
water quality in surrounding streams or other bodies of water.
Pesticide residues that leach through the soil can contaminate
groundwater supplies, polluting wells. Use buffer strips (discussed in
detail previously in this handbook) and no-spray zones around
streams or water, providing an area that can filter runoff from fields.
Bes Managemen t Practices foi
Alabama Sod Production
Proper irrigation will help minimize excessive leaching, and never
exceed the labeled rate for any pesticide. Techniques to use when
cleaning sprayers and tanks to avoid environmental harm will be dis-
cussed later in this handbook.
Storage
Keep all pesticides in a locked room, cabinet, or separate build-
ing designated solely for the storage of these materials. Post the area
or building with a sign that reads "PESTICIDES - POISONS, KEEP
OUT." A pesticide storage facility should have a cement floor, an
exhaust fan, good lighting, and a lock on the doorThe storage build-
ing should be located away from where people and animals live, and
where there is no chance that runoff or drainage could contaminate
surface or underground water.
A drainage system should be built to collect any runoff water.
Pesticide residues from tank rinsings, equipment cleaning, or seep-
Chemical storage locations must be clearly marked and kept locked.
CHEMICAL
STORAGE
I AlabaimaiI S 'od IroCction
age from storage should be contained in dikes, collecting pools, or
a treatment container to avoid water contamination. All collected
runoff water should be treated as surplus pesticide and disposed of
accordingly.
Store all pesticides in the original container. Check often for
leaks or breaks. If a container is damaged transfer the pesticide to a
container that has held the same pesticide. Clean up spills correctly
by sweeping up granules, or using earth, sand, or adsorbent clays to
contain liquid spills.
Keep an up-to-date inventory of the pesticides you have in
stock. Keep your inventory sheet stored with a copy of the label of
each pesticide and the Material Safety Data Sheet (MODS) for each
pesticide.
Mixing
Mixing and loading pesticides is a potentially dangerous task
because people are working with concentrated pesticides. Pesticide
applicators who are mixing and loading should be educated about the
materials with which they are working, and should wear all required
safety equipment. Simple rules to follow when mixing pesticides
include:
-*Have detergent, soap, and adequate water supplies available.
-+Be sure all equipment (such as pumps) is functioning properly.
-Have material available to clean up spills.
-+Do not work alone - have help available.
-Make sure the respirator (if required) fits properly and has the
correct canister cartridge.
-*Reread the label and follow the directions.
Best Management Practices for]47
Alabama Sod Production I
An example chemical containment system on a sod farm. In this case
the tank contains metham sodium, a soil fumigant.
-)Work in a well-lighted, well-ventilated area.
-+Stand with your back to the wind so that fumes or dust are
blown away from you.
-)Mix and load on a concrete slab where spills can be contained.
Avoid mixing near a well-head or surface water.
-Mix and pour concentrated pesticides below waist level. Never
pour at eye level. Stand with your head well above the spray tank
while pouring and wear splash-proof goggles.
-- Never pour pesticides directly into a spray tank - always mix
and dilute in a small container.
-+Pour the pesticide into water, never water into the pesticide.
-Never stir by hand.
4Make sure all workers thoroughly understand pesticide labels
and follow all precautions.
48 ficst Marinagcmcnt Iractices for
Alabumia Sod Production
Cleaning
Any leftover pesticide in the tank should never be emptied onto
the ground. Empty the tank by spraying the entire contents onto veg-
etation or other areas for which it was intended. In the best situation,
never mix more pesticide than you need. Leftover pesticide that can-
not be sprayed on an appropriate area must be stored and disposed
of properly. Remember, contaminated water from cleaning or rinsing
is considered hazardous, and must be disposed of properly.All mixing
and loading pails and other measuring devices from mixing the pesti-
cide should be triple-rinsed, and the rinse water added to the spray
tank.
-+Empty pesticide containers should be cleaned as follows:
-Empty the container into the tank -let it drain for 30 seconds.
-4Fill it one-quarter full of water.
-- Cap the container and rotate so all the sides are rinsed.
-*Drain into tank - let drain for 30 seconds.
-Repeat steps 2 through 4 two more times.
Sprayers and other pesticide equipment should also be triple-
rinsed, with rinse water from these processes, stored or contained in
a recycling system until disposal. Rinse water should be placed in the
sprayer, the sprayer turned on, and rinse water sprayed through the
boom in an appropriate area. All nozzles and screens should be
removed and cleaned. Never clean a nozzle, screen, or hose by blow-
ing or sucking on it with your mouth.
Worker Safety
The terms toxicity and hazard are both factors that affect the
danger of the pesticide for a worker. Toxicity is the capacity of the
Best Management Practices for 49
Alabama Sod Production I
Always check the product label to determine the level of personal
protective pq;inmn (PPF1 --mired.
A"
substance to cause injury or death. Hazard includes both toxicity and
exposure.
Toxicity is expressed in terms of an LD
50 
(lethal dose), which is
the amount of a pesticide needed to kill 50% of a large population of
test animals. LD
50
s can be expressed as acute oral (via mouth) or
acute dermal (via skin) doses in terms of milligrams (mg) of toxicant
per kilograms (kg) of body weight of the test animal.The lower the
LD50, the more poisonous the pesticide.Acute LD
50
s do not reflect
chronic (long term build-up) effects of any pesticide.
Required protective clothing and equipment are described on
the pesticide label.The amount and type of clothing needed will vary
with toxicity, formulation, application equipment, and degree of expo-
sure.Typical protective clothing could include:
Body coverings - Wear at least a long-sleeved shirt and long-
legged trousers, or a coverall. If your coverall will be in a mist or wet
for any reason wear a liquid-proof suit. After use, wash the clothes
separately with a detergent and water.
SO Bc t Managcement 
IPaticc, for
I Alabama Sod PrOductillon
Gloves -Always wear unlined elbow-length neoprene gloves.
Some pesticide labels may list a special type of glove, as some fumi-
gants are absorbed by neoprene. Check for holes in the gloves by fill-
ing with water and gently squeezing.Wash the gloves with detergent
and water before removing them.
Boots -Wear lightweight neoprene or rubber boots. Keep pant
legs outside the boots.
Goggles or face shield -Wear tight fitting goggles and a full face
shield whenever the chemical could contact your eyes. Watch the
headband of your eye protection -the material may absorb pesticide.
Hat -Wear something to protect your head. Rubber or plastic
rain hats, hard hats, or waterproof parkas with hoods are all good
choices as they can be washed.Avoid cotton or felt hats because they
absorb pesticides.
Respirators - Read the label to see if a respirator is needed.
Many nematicides and soil fumigants require a respirator. Respirators
are needed if you are exposed to a pesticide for a long time, if the
pesticide you are using is highly toxic, or if you are working in an
enclosed area. Surgical masks or a dust mask are not respirators.They
may help when mixing dry formulations of low toxicity pesticides but
are not effective around fine mists. They do nothing to stop vapor
inhalation.
Care of Clothing Worn During Pesticide Application
Remove the clothes while still outdoors. Do not launder the
clothes with other laundry, and have a separate container for them
until they can be laundered. Pre-rinse before washing, wash after
each use, and wash in hot water. Use a heavy duty laundry deter-
Best Management Practices for
Alabama Sod Production I
gent, and wash with a full water level in the machine using a long
wash cycle. Line dry whenever possible, as sunlight helps break
down pesticides.
Mp, qtTFNWNWF 1, 
FSTAWWI P S,1r
Mowing
Mowing is one of the most time-intensive chores in sod pro-
duction. Mowing maintains a high-quality turf surface and encourages
lateral growth in regrowing sod. Mowing at the proper frequency also
minimizes thatch accumulation and reduces the need to remove clip-
pings from the turf surface.As a rule of thumb turfgrasses should be
mowed so that no more than 30% of their leaf area is removed at any
one time. Mowing less often will result in clipping accumulation, scalp-
ing, and depletion of photosynthetic reserves.
Two general types of mowers are used in maintaining turfgrass
on sod farms: rotary 
Mowing at the correct 
frequency eliminates
turf scalping, reduces the need to collect
and reel mowers. clippings, 
and encourages lateral turf growth.
Although reel mowers
have a much higher
quality of cut they also
require intensive
maintenance becaus.
each reel unit ha
.
many reels and cutting
blades that must be
kept sharp. Flail or
rotary mowers do not
offer the same quality
52 BcLt 
Managecment 
I'ractices for
Alalbrlma Sod Prodtuction
of cut, but are cheaper to maintain.A small (less than 100 
acres) sod
farm will typically have at least one five-gang reel mower that 
is pulled
behind a tractor or truck, and two or more six-foot flail 
or rotary
mowers. It is critical that mowers be washed between fields so that
contamination of a grass species or cultivar by mower traffic is min-
imized, and to prevent the spread of pests between fields.
Pest Control
Weed, disease, and insect control are some of 
the most prob-
lematic issues facing any sod producer. Because chemical labels 
can
rapidly change, and because sod farms are often the focus 
of special
chemical labeling, this BMP manual will not list specific pest 
control
practices.
Best Management Practices for pesticide application on 
sod
farms include: (I) reading the label, (2) applying only at 
labeled rates,
(3) applying only on labeled grasses, (4) following all directions 
for
application (eg., water in after application), and, 5) 
following all
directions for disposal of empty containers, unused pesticides, 
and
runoff from equipment washing. Specific questions regarding 
label
directions or uses can be addressed to a variety of experts, includ-
ing state Extension specialists, chemical company 
technical repre-
sentatives, or product sales representatives. Every year 
Alabama
publishes new "Weed Control for Commercial Turf" 
and "Disease
and Insect Control for Commercial Turf" guides, 
which can be
obtained by calling your county Extension agent and 
requesting a
copy. These guides contain up-to-date recommendations 
for weed
and pest control in sod fields.
Best Management Practices for 53
Alabama Sod Production I
Fertilization
With the exception of nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), and iron (Fe), the
majority of sod farm fertilization should follow recommended soil-
test results. The most common nutrients applied according to soil-
test are phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). If the soil-test recom-
mends lime, liming with dolomitic lime will supply needed calcium
(Ca) and magnesium (Mg).
Phosphorus, potassium, and lime are most commonly applied at
establishment and reestablishment, and are best applied and incorpo-
rated as a part of the renovation process.Applying and incorporating
P, K, and lime materials ensures that the plant nutrients will be locat-
ed in the rooting zone, and fertilizers applied to bare soil are less sus-
ceptible to loss via runoff in water. Typically, P and K are applied
through a granulated homogeneous fertilizer such as 8-8-8 or 10-10-
10. Larger sod farms may order a bulk blend material with triple
superphosphate and potassium chloride as the P and K sources,
respectively.
The most common sources of N fertilizer are soluble sources
with a rapid rate of release and turf response. Typical sources are
ammonium nitrate (34-0-0), ammonium sulfate (21-0-0), and urea
(45-0-0).A typical rate is no more than 50 pounds N per acre per
growing month. Adding additional N can cause increased shoot
growth at the expense of root development, and also increases mow-
ing frequency. These sources are all soluble, relatively cheap per
pound of N, and available as a granular product.Another source of N
is waste material, such as poultry litter or sewage sludge, which typ-
ically contain about 3% nitrogen. However, such wastes often contain
as much P as N, so over-application of phosphorus is likely.To avoid
54 1 Best Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
this environmentally damaging situation frequent (at least yearly) 
soil
testing and analysis of the waste material is needed.
Centipedegrass does not respond to frequent applications of 
N,
and on high pH soils (greater than 7.5) applications of iron (as 
Fe
chelate or Fe sulfate) may produce a greening response without 
addi-
tional nitrogen. On sandy soils that have a higher 
pH, iron fertilizer
may be needed for warm-season turfgrass.
Irrigation
Sufficient water resources should be available to supply one inch
of water per week to every acre of sod on the farm. In extremely 
hot
and dry weather or on farms with very sandy soil the need 
may
increase to two inches of water per week. Alabama sod producers
use several different water sources, including rivers or creeks, 
natu-
ral constructed lakes or ponds, and groundwater 
wells. It is far less
likely for a sod grower to use a public water utility as their primary
source of water.
Effective BMPs for irrigation management include regular 
evaluation
of the irrigation system, including an assessment of the uniformity 
of
water coverage.
Best Management Practices for 55
Alabuma Sod ProductionI
Many Alabama sod growers utilize center pivot or linear sprin-
kler irrigation systems as their primary means of irrigating their fields.
A center pivot system can irrigate anywhere from 40 to 135 acres,
while large linear systems can irrigate up to 400 acres. Traveling gun
systems are often used for smaller fields and spot watering.
Traveling gun systems are flexible, and can be moved from field to
field. However, that does increase labor costs to move and set up the
equipment. Although early morning irrigation is preferred (to lessen
chances of disease) in hot weather larger sod farms may irrigate their
fields around the clock.
How is Turfgrass Selection a BMP?
Proper selection of grass species for an environment is a first
step in protecting the environment. Poorly adapted grasses will not
survive, leaving bare ground susceptible to erosion and sediment loss.
Grasses prone to disease, or those that are inefficient users of water
or nutrients are not environmentally compatible, and may require
more frequent applications of fungicides or water than adapted grass-
es.Typically, in Alabama we grow warm-season turfgrasses, which pre-
fer warm temperatures for growth and development.These grasses
are green and growing in the spring and summer, and go dormant in
the fall and winter.
56(1 I3ct 
NMIangemcnt 
Prlciccs 
Ior
Alabama Sod Production
Bermudagrass (Cynodon spp.)
Bermudagrass is the most widely 
grown turfgrass in the South
and Southeast, and two species of 
bermudagrass are grown for sod
production in Alabama. One species, 
Cynodon dactylon, is common
bermudagrass. Cynodon dactylon is the 
only species of bermudagrass
that produces viable seeds, 
and it is used in breeding programs 
to
produce hybrid bermudagrass. 
Hybrid bermudagrass (typically 
a cross
between Cynodon dactylon and Cynodon 
transvaaolensis) does not pro-
duce viable seeds and must be reproduced 
from sod or other vege-
tative planting material such as 
rhizomes, stolons, or plugs. The
bermudagrass species Cynodon 
transvoalensis is the other bermuda-
grass species grown in Alabama, 
but it is never grown alone, and 
only
exists as part of the crossing 
needed to produce the hybrid 
bermuda-
grasses commonly grown 
at Alabama sod farms.
Both hybrid and Hybrid bermudagrass.
common bermudagrasses M
are characterized by rapic *
growth and fill-in, excei- 
" o
lent wear tolerance and
recovery, and good
drought and heat toler-
ance. Because of these
benefits bermudagrass 
is
grown on almost 
all
Alabama athletic fields
and golf course fairways
and is used on the major-
Alan amcn Sodi l 
cti n I 57
Alabam~i Sod lIoCdtclion
ity of golf course putting greens. It is also widely used as general main-
tenance turf surrounding businesses, hospitals, shopping centers, and
cemeteries.
Bermudagrass is not shade tolerant, and when grown in as little
as 20% shade the turf will thin and become sparse. Additionally, the
majority of high-quality bermudagrass grown on sod farms is hybrid
bermudagrass, which must be established via sprigs or plugs because
seeded hybrid bermudagrasses are not available.Vegetative establish-
ment means that homeowners largely must establish their high-qual-
ity Alabama lawns by laying sod.This is a benefit for the sod industry.
Lastly, as with all warm-season turfgrasses, bermudagrass goes
dormant in winter (when temperatures consistently reach 50
degrees F), turning brown in color until spring, when warming tem-
peratures will cause it to green again. This dormancy causes some
communication problems among homeowners, especially new south-
ern residents, who mistakenly believe that their sod is dead.A few sod
growers may overseed dormant bermudagrass with a cool season
grass (perennial ryegrass), creating sod with a winter green color
from the cool season turf planted into the dormant sod. The cool
season grass dies out in the heat of spring as the bermuda greens.
This is not a common practice because it is difficult to profit from
overseeded turf; however it may be found in very high-value turf
where a winter green color is desired at installation.
Zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp.)
Zoysias are all characterized by slow growth, so most zoysia is
sodded and rarely sprigged. They have better shade tolerance than
bermudagrass, and will tolerate up to 40% shade. Zoysiagrass also has
58 Best 
Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
excellent wear tolerance, but once worn bare it is very slow to fill in,
so it is less suitable as an athletic field turf. Zoysias are most often
used for home lawns, businesses, and municipal turf. A few Alabama
golf courses have zoysiagrass fairways, and some may use zoysia as
collars around putting greens or on tee boxes in shady locations.
Three species of zoysia are grown in Alabama, either alone or
as part of a zoysia hybrid. The species are Zoysia japonica, 
Zoysia
matrella, and Zoysia tenuifolia. Zoysia tenuifolia is not 
found in
Alabama as a separate species, and is only found as a part 
of the Z
tenuifolia x Z japonica hybrid cultivar 'Emerald,' which 
will be dis-
cussed later in the handbook.The three species vary in 
leaf texture
(wideness of the leaf blade), and also exhibit some differences 
in
shade tolerance and winter hardiness. Of the three, Zoysia japonica
is the only species available with viable seed. Such seed 
is usually
sold as 'Korean common' seeded zoysia, and it is not widely avail-
Zoysiagrass. able or recommended
for planting, as current
stocks often have uneven
germination and slow
,/ establishment. The most
common cultivars of Z.
Sjaponica grown in Ala-
bama do not produce
viable seed, and must be
planted as plugs or sod.
Zoysia japonica has the
coarsest texture of the
three species, the best
ic Nt Managcnment 
Practicce 
lor 59
Alabhaa Sod 'roduction I
cold tolerance, and is the most aggressive of the three zoysia
species.
Zoysia matrella has a finer leaf texture than Z japonica, but its
cold tolerance is not as good as Z. japonica. One reason for contin-
ued interest in Z. matrella is that it may have better shade tolerance
than the other two zoysia species.A selection of Zoysia matrella was
released in the late 1940s in Alabama as a cultivar called 'Matrella
zoysia,' and zoysia lawns of older homes from that period may still
contain the grass. It is not commonly grown on Alabama sod farms,
although a few in the state still do have active fields of 'Matrella
zoysia.' Additionally, active zoysia breeding programs 
in some states,
especially at Texas A&M, have produced some new zoysia cultivars
and hybrids that utilize selections from Z. matrella.
Centipedegrass
Only one species of centipedegrass [Eremochloa ophiuroides
Munro Hack.] is used in Alabama sod production. Often considered
the turf of choice by homeowners seeking a low maintenance turf,
centipedegrass is used primarily for home lawns or business turf.
Centipedegrass has a very coarse leaf blade, and has a more
open turf than zoysiagrass or bermudagrass.Although not as cold tol-
erant as bermudagrass or zoysiagrass, it can withstand moderate
shade (40-50%), and will also tolerate more acid soils (pH 5) than
other warm-season grasses. This tolerance of some shade, coupled
with its low maintenance requirements (little nitrogen, less mowing),
makes centipedegrass a popular selection for many sod producers.
Centipedegrass can be established by seed, and many sod
growers make their initial centipedegrass establishment from a
60 Best 
Management 
Practices for
I Alabama Sod Production
direct seeding.A success- 
Centipedegrass.
ful centipedegrass seed-
ing re-quires a finely pre
pared seedbed 
and ade 
> ,
quate, frequent watering,
-V.-
to ensure germination.
St. Augustinegrass
The warm-season
turfgrass with the coars-
est texture, St. Augustine-
grass [Stenotaphrum
secundatum Walt. Kuntze]
is grown in Alabama for use in the central and southern part of 
the
state. It is widely used as a lawn grass along the Gulf Coast, 
and its
tolerance of shady sites (up to 70% shade) has moved use 
of the turf
inland to many home lawns in the southern region. Although it has
good shade and heat tolerance, it is not cold tolerant and many cul-
tivars of St. Augustinegrass are less well adapted to northern
Alabama.
When well fertilized and intensively maintained 
St.
Augustinegrass has a lush, green appearance. However, 
lush growth
can render the turf susceptible to pests, and St. Augustinegrass 
is
especially prone to attack by chinch bugs and diseases 
such as gray
leaf spot. It is maintained at a higher mowing height 
than bermuda-
grass or zoysiagrass, and its lack of tolerance to traffic makes it 
an
unacceptable choice for athletic fields.
St.Augustinegrass decline (SAD) is an especially damaging 
dis-
ease caused by a virus. No control measures exist.The 
only way to
Best Marlni.gcncent Practices for 61
Alabama Sod Production
Saint Augustinegrass. manage SAD is to plant culti-
vars of St. Augustinegrass
with resistance to the virus.
Seashore Paspalum
Far less common on
sod farms than the four
major warm season turf-
grasses discussed previously,
seashore paspalum (Paspalum
4 ~ginatum Swartz) is gaining
S pularity as a turfgrass for
)If courses and athletic
" ds that must be main-
tained under very saline conditions. Several sod farms 
in the
Southeast have cultivars that are for sale, and 
the University of
Georgia has an active breeding program to further the development
of seashore paspalum.
Currently, only vegetative cultivars of the grass 
are available.The
defining characteristic of seashore paspalum is 
its tolerance to saline
soils, well beyond that of St.Augustinegrass or bermudagrass.This 
has
made use of seashore paspalum an attractive option 
for golf courses
in coastal areas, or for those using low quality 
irrigation water.
Seashore paspalum can be mowed at a wide 
variety of mowing
heights (including putting green height), and it 
tolerates traffic well.
Seashore paspalum does not have the cold or 
drought tolerance of
bermudagrass or zoysiagrass, and information 
about disease and
insect tolerance is largely missing at this writing.
62 13cL~fl WIa.ni"crit Iiztiti Ir
Alabania Sod IProchuLItion
Buffalograss
Although there are a few sod farms in Alabama that produce buf-
falograss (Buchloe dactyloides) it is not a turf recommended for
Alabama sod production. Attempts have been made to use the turf
in Alabama because it is extremely low maintenance and drought tol-
erant, as it is adapted to regions of low rainfall (less than 25 inches
per year). It has been marketed as an excellent choice for low-input
athletic fields or low-mow applications, such as parking lot islands.
However, typical amounts of Alabama rainfall are too much for this
turf, and the end result is that after a few years bermudagrass or
grassy weeds will invade the buffalograss.Also, buffalograss has sepa-
rate male and female plants, which means that seeded types produce
a widely varied patchy turf. Buffalograss sod is usually all female plants,
which eliminates unsightly seed stalks but does force vegetative
reproduction of a turf that is supposed to be inexpensive and low
maintenance.
Because of its lack of environmental adaptation it is not current-
ly recommended that buffalograss be grown for Alabama sod pro-
duction.Although the turf may appear useful for low-input situations
the most likely result of any Alabama buffalograss planting is that
common bermudagrass will eventually invade.
Tall Fescue
The only cool season turf grown on Alabama sod farms, tall fes-
cue (Festuca arundinacea) is largely produced for sale in North
Alabama and Georgia. Because tall fescue has year-round green color
and will tolerate shade, many Alabama homeowners attempt to man-
age the turf as a year-round grass. However, this is only an option in
North Alabama, and attempts to grow the turf year-round in Central
Best Management Practices for 63
Alabama Sod Production I
and South Alabama usually result in severely thinned or dead turf by
August, with fall reseeding needed to maintain year-round growth.
Unlike most of the warm-season grasses planted for sod pro-
duction, tall fescue sod is established by seeding. Because tall fescue
does not have extensive creeping stolons or rhizomes the sod does
not knit well, and it is usually grown with plastic netting to help sod
strength. If the sod is produced in Alabama it is usually a fall planted
crop and is harvested within a short time period.
Unlike warm-season turfgrasses, which frequently have a limited
number of available cultivars, cool season turfgrasses often have
hundreds of cultivars developed out of many grass breeding pro-
grams. However, most Alabama sod growers tend to seed just a few
tall fescue cultivars, with the most common being 'Rebel' or one of
the'Rebel' offshoots such as'Rebel Jr.' or'Rebel 3D.' These cultivars
are turf-type tall fescues, having a finer texture and better ability to
persist at a low mowing height than KY-3 I pasture type tall fescue.
Some sod growers use a fine netting in their tall fescue or centipede-
grass production. This helps the sod knit, and is especially useful in
large roll systems.
I Albana Sod Plodulctuon1
The term "cultivar" is shorthand for "cultivated variety," desig-
nating a turfgrass that is specially bred or selected. After years of
evaluation for characteristics such as texture, disease resistance,
adaptation to mowing height, and cold tolerance, a promising cultivar
is released as a named variety.A cultivar may be a hybrid, or it may
be a vegetative selection from a patch of grass that contains a desir-
able characteristic. Many warm-season cultivars are only available via
vegetative reproduction, which means they can only be reproduced
by sprigs, plugs, or sod.
Bermudagrass Cultivars
Tifway (419)
The most popular hybrid bermudagrass grown on Alabama sod
farms,'Tifway' bermudagrass is also commonly known as'419.' Many
sod purchasers know one name or the other, often not realizing that
they are the same cultivar. Other purchasers may know the grass
under a vague name such as "Tifton" bermudagrass.The correct cul-
tivar name, however, is 'Tifway' bermudagrass.
'Tifway' is a hybrid between a Cynodon dactylon and Cynodon trans-
vaolensis, and was released by Dr. Glenn Burton of the United States
Department of Agriculture/Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station
(USDA/GAES) in 1960. Superior to common bermudagrass in turf
quality, it has a darker green color, finer texture and dense turf.
'Tifway' must be propagated by sprigs, plugs, or sod, and viable seed
is not available. 'Tifway' is commonly used on athletic fields, home
lawns, golf course fairways, and anywhere a higher-quality utility turf
is needed.
Best Managcmcnt 
Practiccs foi 
65
Akibani Sod 'rod Lidofl
Tifgreen (328)
Like'Tifway," 'Tifgreen' also is known by both a name and a num-
ber, and both are commonly used in the sod industry. In this case
'Tifgreen' is also known as'328.' A C. dactylon x C. transvaalensis hybrid,
'Tifgreen' was released in 1956 by USDA and GAES.A low-growing,
dense turf with a fine texture 'Tifgreen' can still be found on many
Alabama sod farms. It was originally used for putting greens, high-
quality home lawns, tee boxes, and athletic field areas such as tennis
courts and baseball infields.
However, the use of 'Tifgreen' in home lawns has largely been
replaced by 'Tifway,' and its use on putting greens has largely been
replaced by'Tifdwarf." 'Tifgreen' is still an excellent option for base-
ball infields, tee boxes, and golf courses seeking a low-input putting
green surface that can be maintained at a slightly higher mowing
height. In fact, many small-scale golf courses that have limited equip-
ment and supplies do not consider 'Tifgreen' when sprigging a put-
ting green, although it still might be the best option for their course.
Tifdwarf
A hybrid bermudagrass specifically developed for use on putting
greens, 'Tifdwarf' was released in 1960 by the USDA/GAES. Unlike
'Tifway' and 'Tifgreen,' this grass was a vegetative selection from a
patch of 'Tifgreen.' This patch had smaller leaves, better green color,
and fewer seedheads than 'Tifgreen,' which allows it to be mowed at
lower mowing heights. Currently'Tifdwarf' is the standard for use on
southern bermudagrass putting greens.
'Tifdwarf' is not commonly grown on Alabama sod farms. Several
Alabama sod nurseries grow the grass, and a large portion of their
sales consists of sprigs or rhizomes for use in planting new or reno-
66 1 Best Management Practices 
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vated putting greens.The turf is not recommended for use on home
lawns or athletic fields.
Tifway II
An improved selection of'Tifway,"Tifway II' was released because
it was thought to have superior cold tolerance and quicker spring
green-up than'Tifway.' It is widely found on Alabama sod farms, and is
often sold as'Tifway' or a generic Tifton bermuda. It has not overtak-
en the strong market niche filled by 'Tifway,' however.
TifSport
A new entry on the turf market,'TifSport' is a certified hybrid
bermudagrass, with certified and patented genetic purity. An irradi-
ated mutant from 'Midiron, 'TifSport' has superior cold tolerance
when compared to 'Tifway.' It can only be purchased though mem-
ber growers of the Tift 94 Growers Association, Inc. Currently there
are two Alabama sod growers who are producing 'TifSport' for sale.
High quality athletic facilities and golf courses seeking an improved
hybrid bermudagrass have been the main purchasers of 'TifSport.'
Additional information about 'TifSport' can be obtained at the Web
site at http://www.tifsport.com/default.htm.
T-10
Another new certified hybrid bermudagrass,'T-10' has a natural
dark bluish-green color. It has a coarser texture than 'Tifway,' and is
intended for use in low-maintenance conditions.Although there are
no Alabama sod producers currently growing this grass it is available
from some Georgia growers.
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Alabama Sod Production I
Zoysiagrass Cultivars
Meyer
An improved strain of Zoysia japonica,'Meyer' is only available by
vegetative reproduction as sprigs or sod. It is sometimes also called
'Z-52.' Because'Meyer' zoysia is slow to grow, it is almost always sold
and laid as solid sod. On sod farms new fields of 'Meyer' zoysia are
established by planting plugs at a six- to I2-inch spacing.
'Meyer' is characterized by a coarse leaf texture, excellent cold
tolerance, and ability to grow well in partial shade. It is primarily used
for lawns or other high-quality utility turf (such as business landscap-
ing).There are a few Alabama golf courses that have 'Meyer' zoysia-
grass fairways.
Two common zoysiagrass cultivars found on Alabama sod farms.
Meyer (left) is a Z. japonica type, while Emerald (right) is a finer tex-
tured hybrid of Z. japonica and Z. tenuifolia.
Emerald
A hybrid zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica x Zoysia tenuifolia),'Emerald'
zoysia must be propagated vegetatively. 'Emerald' has a finer texture
than 'Meyer,' but is not as cold tolerant. It is grown on sod farms
throughout Alabama.'Emerald' and 'Meyer' are the two most popular
zoysias grown on Alabama sod farms.
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Matrella
A vegetative release of Zoysia matrella,'Matrella' zoysia is often
found in older (1950s) Alabama home lawns. A few Alabama golf
courses also use the grass as the separating collar between putting
green and fairway grasses, as the very slow growth of the 'Matrella'
zoysia helps prevent grass encroachment.'Matrella' zoysia has a tex-
ture and general appearance similar to 'Emerald' zoysia, and it is
thought to have slightly better shade tolerance.The grass has largely
fallen from popular use, although there are a few sod farms in
Alabama that still have the turf in production.
El Toro
Another vegetative Zoysia japonica, 'El Toro' has a coarse leaf
blade and faster growth than 'Meyer' zoysia. Although not widely
grown on Alabama sod farms it can be found in the Southeast, and it
usually marketed as a faster spreading, more aggressive alternative to
'Meyer' zoysia.
Other Zoysias
Zoysiagrass breeding is a rapidly growing area in turfgrass
research, and several new cultivars have been released in the past few
years. Many have excellent promise, and may well make their way
onto Alabama sod farms. Examples of such cultivars include 'Belair'
and 'De Anza,' newer cultivars from the University of California,
which were released as aggressive growers with good winter color
retention. Texas A&M University has several new entries into the
zoysiagrass market, including 'Diamond,' 'Cavalier,' 'Palisades,' and
'Crowne.' 'Diamond' and 'Cavalier' are vegetative selections of Z
matrella, and are fine textured zoysiagrasses.'Palisades' and 'Crowne'
and vegetative selections of Z japonica, with coarser texture and
faster growth for home lawns, golf courses, and utility turf.
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Alabama Sod Production I
Seeded Zoysiagrasses
Although not yet commonly used, seeded zoysias do show
promise for use on sod farms, and a few sod farms in the South are
growing and selling seeded zoysiagrass. Selected from Zoysia japonicas,
the most common seeded zoysiagrass is 'Zenith.'
St. Augustinegrass Cultivars
A great majority of the St.Augustinegrass sod planted in Alabama
is a sterile vegetatively-propagated selection of common St.
Augustinegrass. Cultivars were developed from this common St.
Augustinegrass in the late 1950s, but there are still relatively few
improved cultivars of St.Augustinegrass grown on sod farms. If they
are produced, improved cultivars of St. Augustinegrass were usually
released for: (1) improved cold tolerance, (2) fine texture, (3) resist-
ance to St.Augustinegrass decline (SAD), or (4) chinch-bug tolerance.
Floratam
Released in 1972,'Floratam' has resistance to SAD and is chinch-
bug tolerant. It has a very coarse leaf texture, and spreads rapidly
from profuse aboveground stolons. Because it is not very cold toler-
ant it is largely found at southern Alabama sod farms and in many
Florida sod farms.
Raleigh
Released in 1980 by the North Carolina Experiment Station,
'Raleigh' is the St.Augustinegrass cultivar that can be found at a few
northern or central Alabama sod farms. Finer textured than
'Floratam" 'Raleigh' does not have chinch bug tolerance.'Raleigh' does
have resistance to SAD, and is one of the more cold-tolerant St.
Augustinegrasses.
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Bitter Blue
An older (before 1960) cultivar selected from common St.
Augustinegrass,'Bitter Blue' has a deep blue color and a very coarse
texture.There are several southern sod farms that still have this cul-
tivar growing in their sod fields.
Seville
Released in 1980, 'Seville' has much finer texture than many
other St.Augustinegrass cultivars. It does not have good cold toler-
ance, and very few Alabama sod farms produce this cultivar.
Palmetto
A registered and privately released cultivar of St.Augustinegrass,
'Palmetto' was released in 1995 as a cultivar with good cold hardi-
ness and excellent spring green-up.
Centipedegrass Cultivars
Most centipedegrass sod sold in Alabama is a common cen-
tipedegrass that was originally planted from seed.There are very few
developed cultivars, and of those the only one found on any Alabama
sod farm is 'AU Centennial,' a centipedegrass released by Auburn
University for its finer texture and better cold tolerance. However,
this cultivar largely failed to find a market niche, and common cen-
tipedegrass comprises the vast majority of centipedegrass sold in
Alabama.
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